Basic Memory Processes

Basic Memory Processes

• Memory is composed of encoding, storage, and retrieval.
• Encoding is the process where information is transformed into a storable format and is the first step in memory formation.
• Memory code creation is influenced by attention and the depth of processing.
• Focused attention is required for effective encoding.
• Storage refers to encoded information maintained over time.
• Short-term memory can hold a limited amount of information for approximately 20 seconds.
• Long-term memory can store vast amounts of information for extended durations.
• Retrieval involves accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness.
• The effectiveness of cues, and similarity of retrieval conditions to encoding conditions affect retrieval.
• Inconsistent retrieval attempts can arise from mismatches between encoding and retrieval processes.

Semantic vs. Episodic Memory

• K. C.'s case illustrates the distinction between semantic memory (facts and concepts) and episodic memory (personal experiences and events) due to brain damage from an accident.
• K. C.'s semantic memory remained intact after his accident, enabling him to recall factual information and perform well on cognitive tasks.
• K. C.'s episodic memory was severely impaired, so he couldn't remember personal experiences.
• The distinction between semantic and episodic memory is not just based on categories of information but also involves differing underlying neural mechanisms.
• These two types of memory are encoded and stored in distinct brain areas, utilizing different neural pathways for processing.

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory

• Implicit memory involves unconscious memory processes affecting behavior without conscious awareness, like skills and conditioned responses.
• Explicit memory involves conscious recall of information, such as facts and events.
• Implicit memory operates without the individual's knowledge or effort.
• An example is completing a word fragment (e.g., ss_ss_ for "assassin") without recalling prior exposure.
• Explicit memories require deliberate recollection, while implicit memories operate automatically.
• Implicit memory exists through tasks such as skill learning and priming, leading to improved performance on previously encountered stimuli without recalling the exposure.

Declarative vs. Procedural Memory

• Declarative memory is factual information and knowledge, divided into semantic (general knowledge) and episodic (personal experiences) memory.
• Procedural memory pertains to knowing how to perform tasks and skills, often without conscious awareness.
• Amnesia tends to affect procedural memory less.
• Individuals with amnesia can often retain the ability to learn and execute motor skills.
• Declarative memory is more susceptible to impairment from amnesia than procedural memory.
• Declarative memory typically requires more focused effort and attention to retrieve compared to procedural memory.
• Procedural memory often operates automatically during tasks.

Semantic vs. Episodic vs. Autobiographical Memory

• Semantic memory involves knowledge about the world, facts, and concepts, not tied to personal experience.
• Episodic memory pertains to recollections of specific events and experiences from life.
• Autobiographical memory is a personal subset of episodic memory, including one's life narrative and events defining personal identity.
• Semantic memory is relied upon for generalized knowledge about the world and is essential for understanding concepts and language, which is fundamental to education and communication.
• Episodic memory provides context for individual identity, experiences, recall, and storytelling.

Prospective vs. Retrospective Memory

• Prospective memory enables remembering to do something in the future, like scheduling a meeting or taking medication.
• It requires recalling intentions at the right moment, often without external reminders.
• Remembering to remember necessitates awareness of that intention.
• Retrospective memory involves recalling past events or things, like recalling who attended an event or what was taught in class.
• Cues and reminders from the environment often assists retrospective memory.
• These external prompts are not present in prospective memory, making the latter distinct from retrospective memory.
• Prospective memory can be challenging due to distractions and interruptions.
• Cognitive load, stress, and multitasking can overwhelm working memory.
• Planned actions are easily forgotten with prospective memory because there is no immediate cue to remind us.
• Cognitive processes must focus on the upcoming task.
• Aids for memory include setting digital alarms or reminders, sticky notes, mental rehearsal, and to-do lists.
• Retro signifies backward-looking concepts such as retrospective memory.
• Pro and antero indicate forward-looking perspectives, or anterograde amnesia which relates to problems forming new memories after an event.

Active Encoding & Selective Attention

• Active encoding is the process through which individuals create memory codes by engaging meaningfully with information.
• Active encoding involves both receiving information and integrating it into existing knowledge structures.
• Active encoding ties into selective attention, which is the ability to focus on specific stimuli while filtering out others.
• "Paying attention" can mean awareness of stimuli in one's environment.
• Selective attention involves focus on relevant information while ignoring distractions.
• Reading comprehension can suffer because individuals cannot identify main ideas amidst distractions.
• Forgetting a person's name soon after an introduction results from being unable to encode relevant information due to competing cognitive tasks.
• Mere attention is not good for encoding; allocation of cognitive resources to pertinent material is important for memory formation.

Cocktail-Party Phenomenon

• The cocktail-party phenomenon demonstrates selective attention in real-world situations.
• It refers to focusing on a single conversation in a noisy environment.
• Incoming information is processed for meaning, like recognizing one's name amidst noise.
• Selective attention can filter and prioritize information based on relevance at conscious and subconscious levels.

Multi-Tasking

• Multi-tasking is not advised when performing complex or dangerous tasks.
• Simultaneous cognitive tasks diminish performance and lead to errors.
• Cognitive resources and attention are limited.
• Texting while driving impairs reaction times and situational awareness, increasing risks of accidents.

Levels of Processing & Encoding

• Levels of processing refers to the depth at which information is encoded.
• Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed three levels of information processing, including Structural, Phonemic, and Semantic Encoding
• Structural encoding focuses on physical characteristics of a stimulus (e.g., uppercase) and is the most superficial level.
• Phonemic encoding emphasizes what a word sounds like, including rhyme and rhythm and is the intermediate level.
• Semantic encoding focuses on meaning, such as interpreting a word's context within a sentence and is the deepest level.
• Depth of processing correlates with later recall (semantic processing better).
• Research by Craik and Tulving (1975) showed that participants who processed information at a semantic level had higher recall rates than those who did structural or phonemic processing only.
• Semantic processing leads to durable memory traces because it connects to existing knowledge structures, which facilitates retrieval.
• Making material personally relevant further enhances this process.
• Structural Encoding involves thinking the word CAT is in all capital letters.
• Phonemic Encoding involves saying the word CAT aloud and noticing it rhymes with HAT.
• Semantic Encoding is knowing that a cat is a small, domesticated pet and reflecting on personal experiences with a cat.

Elaboration, Visual Imagery, & Self-Referent Encoding

• Elaboration enhances memory by linking new material to existing knowledge.
• Connecting new information to what one already knows helps enrich the memory structure.
• An example is connecting phobias arising from classical conditioning to a personal experience with spiders to retain the concept.
• Visual imagery involves creating mental images to represent words and concepts, aiding in memory retention.
• Concrete objects are easier to visualize than abstract concepts because forming images from concrete terms allows the brain to encode information both visually and semantically.
• Self-referent encoding involves relating new information to personal experiences, making it relevant and meaningful and facilitating deeper processing and easier retrieval of information.
• An example is associating the concept of "justice" with the imagery of Lady Justice to bring both abstract and concrete understanding together and promote stronger memory retention.
• Visual tools can aid in recalling concrete images, while abstract terms rely on associations with other ideas.
• Effective memory encoding combines strategies for both types of information.

Mnemonic Devices

• Mnemonic devices enhance memory retention.
• Acrostics and acronyms are verbal mnemonic strategies.
• Acrostics involve creating a sentence where the first letter of each word relates to what you are trying to remember. "Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge" helps music students remember the notes on the lines of the treble clef (E, G, B, D, F).
• Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of a series of words and creating a new word. "HOMES" can help recall the Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior) Link method and method of loci are visual-imagery mnemonic techniques.
• Link Method involves creating a vivid story linking items to be remembered, which provides a context.
• Method of Loci involves associating each item with a specific physical location in a familiar setting allowing you to recall items as one mentally walks through.

Testing Effect (Retrieval Practice)

• The testing effect significantly enhances long-term retention more than passive study methods like review or rereading.
• Self-testing solidifies memory and improves the ability to retrieve information.

Massed vs. Distributed Practice

• Massed Practice involves cramming information into short study sessions.
• Distributed Practice spreads learning over longer intervals.
• Distributed practice results in better retention than massed practice.
• Spacing out learning is crucial for long-term retention.
• Spacing minimizes interference and reinforces memory through repeated retrieval over time.

Analogy with Computer Systems

• Theories regarding how human memory is processed, stored, and retrieved, is influenced by computer systems.
• In this analogy, human memory functions like a computer's memory, with distinct but interrelated components.
• These distinctions include Sensory memory, Short-term memory, and Long-term memory
• This model mirrors how computer data is temporarily held in RAM before being moved to permanent storage like hard drives.
• Common processes in both systems include input (encoding), processing (manipulation), and output (retrieval) of information.

Three Main Memory Stores

• Sensory Memory holds sensory information only briefly.
• Short-Term Memory (STM) retains information temporarily for active processing.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM) can store a vast amount of information for extended periods allowing for Thinking and holding Knowledge _ Short-term memory is used during thinking and processing. _ Long-term memory stores knowledge and personal memories.
• These memory stores are not considered separate locations in the brain, rather interconnected systems that collectively facilitate memory processing and retrieval.

Sensory information (duration)

• Sensory information is very brief.
• Visual sensory memory retains information for approximately 250 milliseconds.
• Auditory sensory memory can last up to 2-4 seconds, allowing you time for initial processing.
• This happens before the information is either discarded or moved to short-term memory

Short-Term Memory

• Short-term memory has duration and capacity limitations.
• Duration: The information typically lasts around 20-30 seconds unless actively maintained.
• Capacity: STM can hold 5 to 9 items.
• More recent research suggests that current short-term memory capacity is approximately 3 to 5 items.
• This change in understanding uses the concept of working memory, which focuses on the active manipulation of information rather than mere storage

Rehersal

• Maintenance Rehearsal involves repeating information (e.g., reciting a phone number) to keep it in short-term memory.
• Elaborative Rehearsal (Elaborative Encoding) links new information to existing knowledge and makes it more meaningful, enhancing the transfer to long-term memory.
• Connecting new concepts to personal experiences can lead to better retention.

Chunking

• A chunk is a grouped unit of information that enhances memory retention.
• Chunking allows individuals to store more information by organizing it into meaningful units, which is signficant for understanding short-term memory
• Instead of remembering a sequence of twelve letters individually, remember them as familiar acronyms like "CTV" or "IBM," which is an effective way of increasing the information capacity of STM
• Experts appear to have larger short-term memory capacities because they can chunk information more efficently due to their extensive domain knowledge.
• Experts more easily transform extensive data into smaller, meaningful chunks.
• While expert and novices actual STM capacity is remains similar, the ability for experts to recall complex information is enhanced by their prior knowledge and experience
• Long-term memory plays a vital role in chunking allowing for the knowledge required to form chunks comes from what has been previously stored in long-term memory.
• For example, a chess expert has expertise in the game so they can easily remember complex arrangements of pieces.

Short Term/Working memory (similarites and differences)

• Working memory expands on the concept of short-term memory.
• While temporary information storage happens for both, working memory emphasizes active information manipulation.
• They share same duration usually without rehearsal but working memory includes extra components facilitating complex cognitive tasks, showcasing that the working memory has a greater functionality than short-term memory

Baddeley's model

• Baddeley's model, uses 4 components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial Sketchpad, episodic Buffer and the central executive.
• Phonological Loop processes verbal and auditory information. It is engaged through techniques like when trying to remember a phone number
• Visuospatial Sketchpad: visual and spatial information, which allow individuals to visualize and manipulate images, such as when one needs to rearrange furniture in their mind or navigate through a space
• Central Executive: acts as a control system for the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad by governing attention, switching focus, and manages cognitive tasks.
• Episodic Buffer integrates information from memory (the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term), that proves to be a representation for experiences and events

Maintenance Rehersal (memory model)

• Maintenance rehearsal (repeating info) occurs in the phonological loop of the working memory model.
• This process keeps it active in memory.
• Capacity remains approximately twenty seconds without such rehearsal.

Working-memory capacity and limitations

• The ability to use one's working memory mirrors how short-term memory works, roughly with holding 3 to 5 items.
• This limits how much information one has at a time.
• Working-memory links to cognitive abilities in learning such as reading and comprehension reasoning.
• Higher capacity enables better manipulation of information while learning.
• This connection to higher working memory supports that those whom use this method can more effecitvely take on more tasks

Contrasting durations, limits and usage of memories

• Short-Term Memory (STM) has a duration for 20-30 seconds without rehearsal.
• Long-Term Memory (LTM) can store information for extended, a lifetime to be exact.
• STM limits range is 3-5 items. LTM- Has virtually unlimited capacity.
• Using STM and working memory, we can actively process information like solving math or using a number for a brief period of time
• We use LTM- for storing information for later to use for experinences in life in the skills in life.
  • Knowledge interacts with memories.
• LTM interactions helps build knowledge and cognitive task skills.
• We use LTM for experiences.
• Memories store our world knowledge for help in memory retention

Semantic Information

• Semantic is categorized from related groups such as fruits- apples bananas and oranges.
• A way Semantic is arranged from structured from mammals, reptiles and birds.
• Another term is schemas- mental that help interpret information for a restaurant

For relationships semantic, you can use it in the memory concept where hearing one word is relatable the the memory concept

semantic is structures, and based on these concept, this illustrate one way to have a network.

The links in a Semantic network indicate the strong the relationships with a network for different types of relationships.

Connectionist Networks are when memory is model thro nodes similar like neurons

Lastly memory are from networks for neurons

Retrieval

• Tip of the Tongue is tempoararly irratable, and have a "feeling" of recallaing something

• This is not a process, yet this highlight one part of the memory proceass

• Research shows that indiviuals age show symtpoms of the tongue

• Retrivals are used stimui to assit indviduals in recllinf for info stored in LTM

• they are vital of the activation of related memories

• it is helpful the the concept of spreading - by one item to activit other connected networks

• using the work appel will help activaed more nodes like fruuit and banannanas help in aid the memory

• Retrieval depends of avalbility and quality demonstrate a system

Memories

• Memeories are formed of reconstruction that help current behaviors of the knowldge and expirences
• Misinformation can can modify a event of one`s memory
• Mememories become impacted becuase of our reconstrctuve nature and are able to be susciptible to exteneral influences
• the source process that help determing the origins
• source can be altered for the contact to help better understand

Heringhaus

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Graphs

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Learning (retention)

• Reention refers the amount of memory that can be retenined after a long process. Ex- students in vocab take long with studeis

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Contrats

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RePressed Memories

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Awaness

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