Bacterial Microbiota and Gut Health Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following is NOT a common type of normal bacterial microbiota?

  • Staphylococcus (correct)
  • Lactobacillus
  • Bifidobacterium
  • Saccharomyces

Which of the following is a potential consequence of dysbiosis?

  • Increased risk of obesity (correct)
  • Increased risk of antibiotic resistance
  • Improved immune function
  • Reduced risk of type 1 diabetes

What is the primary difference between a prebiotic and a probiotic?

  • Prebiotics promote the growth of specific bacteria while probiotics kill harmful bacteria
  • Probiotics promote the growth of specific bacteria while prebiotics kill harmful bacteria
  • Prebiotics are living organisms while probiotics are food ingredients
  • Probiotics are living organisms while prebiotics are food ingredients (correct)

How can bacteria in the gut affect carcinogenesis?

<p>Bacteria can convert harmless compounds into carcinogens (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of immunoglobulin A (IgA) in the gut?

<p>IgA helps regulate the composition of the gut microbiome (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which antibiotics can disrupt the gut microbiota?

<p>Antibiotics selectively kill certain types of bacteria, altering the balance of the microbiome (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a potential consequence of a disrupted gut microbiome?

<p>Reduced risk of inflammatory bowel disease (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do obese individuals tend to have lower bacterial diversity in their gut?

<p>The exact reason is not fully understood, but it's likely a complex interplay of factors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the O-antigen in bacterial cell walls?

<p>To facilitate the entry of hydrophilic compounds into the cell (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the periplasmic space in bacteria?

<p>Contains a thick layer of peptidoglycan (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria?

<p>The thickness of the peptidoglycan layer (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a capsule in bacteria?

<p>To protect the cell from phagocytosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does bacterial chemotaxis contribute to bacterial occupancy?

<p>By allowing bacteria to move towards optimal nutrient sources (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of pili in bacteria?

<p>To allow for the attachment of the cell to surfaces (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of transport mechanism does NOT require energy?

<p>Facilitated diffusion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of transport mechanism involves the chemical alteration of the transported molecule?

<p>Group translocation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the structure and function of peptidoglycan in bacteria?

<p>Peptidoglycan is a rigid layer found in the cell wall of bacteria, providing structural support and protection against osmotic pressure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the outer membrane in Gram-negative bacteria?

<p>To protect the cell wall and act as an additional barrier against host immune defenses. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of prokaryotes?

<p>They possess a nucleus. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the difference between Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria?

<p>Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer, while Gram-negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a mechanism that bacteria use to survive environmental threats?

<p>They develop resistance to antibiotics by modifying their metabolic pathways. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a survival mechanism used by bacteria?

<p>Engulfing and digesting other organisms. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an example of an antibiotic that inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis?

<p>Tetracyclines (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the role of lipid A in the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria?

<p>Lipid A is a potent endotoxin that triggers an inflammatory response in the host. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is TRUE regarding Gram-negative bacteria?

<p>They do not retain the dye-iodine stain following an alcohol wash. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of fungi?

<p>They possess a cell membrane containing cholesterol. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a dimorphic fungus?

<p>A fungus that can exist in both yeast and mold forms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a type of protozoa?

<p>Flagellates (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between helminths and ectoparasites?

<p>Helminths live inside the host while ectoparasites live outside. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic that separates viruses from both prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms?

<p>Viruses are unable to reproduce on their own. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT true of viruses?

<p>They are able to reproduce independently of a host cell. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of porin channels in Gram-negative bacteria?

<p>They facilitate the transport of molecules across the outer membrane. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why LPS-containing pathogens might be able to evade the complement pathway?

<p>LPS can directly inhibit the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC). (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a consequence of recognizing an antigen by the innate immune system?

<p>Increased production of antibodies by B cells. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key characteristic of inflammation?

<p>Increased vascular permeability. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following immune cells is directly involved in the process of phagocytosis?

<p>Macrophages (C), Neutrophils (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a direct consequence of complement activation?

<p>Increased production of antibodies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of an eosinophil?

<p>To fight parasitic infections. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the acute phase response?

<p>Increased production of antibodies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key function of the adaptive immune system?

<p>To remember specific pathogens, allowing for faster and more targeted responses in the future. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cell is directly responsible for killing virus-infected or damaged cells?

<p>Cytotoxic T cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of antibodies produced by B cells?

<p>To recognize and neutralize specific microbial targets. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the process of antigen presentation in the adaptive immune response?

<p>It allows the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of T cells in the adaptive immune response?

<p>To regulate and coordinate immune responses. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a mechanism by which antibodies can prevent microbial spread?

<p>Inflammation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between B cells and plasma cells?

<p>B cells are the precursors to plasma cells, which are specialized for antibody secretion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the CD4+ T cells in the adaptive immune response?

<p>They activate other immune cells, such as B cells and cytotoxic T cells. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Carcinogenic amines

Chemicals produced by bacteria that are linked to cancer, often from cooked meat.

Cyclamate conversion

The artificial sweetener cyclamate can be turned into the carcinogen cyclohexamine by bacteria.

Normal microbiota's role in immunity

Normal microbiota can stimulate the immune system, specifically producing antibodies like IgA.

Dysbiosis effects

Disruption of normal gut flora linked to anxiety, obesity, and autoimmune diseases.

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Prebiotic definition

Food ingredients that promote the growth of beneficial gut bacteria, mostly fiber that humans can't digest.

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Probiotic definition

Live microorganisms that provide health benefits when consumed, often found in foods like yogurt.

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Antibiotics effect on gut microbiota

Antibiotics can alter the composition of gut microbiota, affecting both diversity and activity.

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Normal microbiota infection risk

When normal bacteria, like E. coli, end up in places they're not supposed to, they can cause infections.

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Eukaryotes vs Prokaryotes

Eukaryotes have a nucleus; prokaryotes do not.

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Prokaryotic DNA

Prokaryotic DNA is circular, while eukaryotic DNA is linear.

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Ribosome Types

Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes; eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes.

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Reproduction Methods

Prokaryotes reproduce by binary fission; eukaryotes by mitosis or meiosis.

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Gram Positive vs Gram Negative

Gram-positive bacteria retain purple dye; gram-negative do not.

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Peptidoglycan Function

Peptidoglycan protects against osmotic pressure and determines bacterial shape.

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Outer Membrane & LPS

LPS, with Lipid A, anchors to the outer membrane and acts as an endotoxin.

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Antibiotic Mechanism

Certain antibiotics inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis, affecting bacterial growth.

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Gram-positive bacteria

Bacteria with thick peptidoglycan walls, retain iodine stain after alcohol wash.

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Gram-negative bacteria

Bacteria with thin peptidoglycan walls and an outer LPS membrane, do not retain iodine stain.

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Fungi

Eukaryotic organisms, usually multicellular, that are heterotrophs and play crucial roles in ecosystems.

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Eukaryotic

Cells with a nucleus and organelles such as mitochondria and Golgi apparatus.

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Chitin

A rigid substance making up the cell walls of fungi.

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Spores

Reproductive units produced by fungi, can be involved in sexual or asexual reproduction.

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Protozoa

Single-celled eukaryotic organisms, often considered as part of the parasite group.

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Viruses

Non-living entities that cannot reproduce without a host, not classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic.

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LPS and MAC Interaction

LPS (lipopolysaccharide) can block the membrane attack complex (MAC), preventing cell lysis.

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Pathogens avoiding complement pathway

Gram-negative bacteria can evade being killed due to the presence of LPS.

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Induced innate immunity overview

Recognition of antigens leads to increased antimicrobial peptides and inflammation mediators.

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Complement activation

Activation of the complement system enhances phagocytosis, opsonization, and inflammation.

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Inflammation characteristics

Inflammation is marked by redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function.

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Role of cytokines and chemokines

These mediators are secreted during inflammation to attract immune cells to the infection site.

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Acute phase response

A rapid increase in production of defensive proteins and pro-inflammatory mediators during infection.

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Erythema and edema

Erythema refers to increased blood flow, while edema refers to increased fluid in tissue during inflammation.

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Neutrophils

A type of white blood cell crucial for the innate immune response.

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Adaptive Immune System

Immune system component that recognizes and remembers specific pathogens.

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Immunological Memory

Ability of the adaptive immune system to remember past infections.

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Antibodies

Proteins produced by B cells that bind to specific antigens.

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Cell-mediated Immunity

Immune response where T cells kill infected or damaged cells.

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B cells

Lymphocytes that produce antibodies after activation.

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Immunoglobulin

Another name for antibodies, produced by plasma cells.

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Antigen Presentation

Process where cells display antigens to activate T cells.

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Core polysaccharide

A component of lipopolysaccharides composed of short sugar chains.

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O-antigen

Hydrophilic carbohydrate chains that help bacteria evade hydrophobic compounds.

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Periplasmic space

The compartment between two membranes containing nutrients and enzymes.

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Acid-fast bacteria

Bacteria with waxy cell walls requiring special staining techniques.

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Capsule function

A protective slimy coating around bacteria to prevent phagocytosis.

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Flagella

Long, helical filaments that provide motility to bacteria.

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Pili (fimbriae)

Hair-like structures for attachment to surfaces.

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Active transport

Movement of molecules into a region of higher concentration using energy.

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Study Notes

Human Microbiome

  • Estimated to have over 100 trillion bacteria, outnumbering human cells.
  • Bacterial genes greatly outnumber human genome, more than 100x.
  • The microbiome may weigh 3 to 4 pounds, as much as the human brain.
  • The microbiome aids in digestion and immune system regulation.
  • It assists in producing B12, thiamine, riboflavin and vitamin K (essential for blood coagulation).
  • Crucial role in the gut-brain axis.

The Virome

  • There are approximately 10 quintillion virus particles on the planet.
  • Viruses outnumber bacteria 10 to 1 in most ecosystems

Class Objectives

  • Define vocabulary words and use them appropriately.
  • Identify normal microbiota and areas of colonization.
  • Define opportunistic and strict pathogens (DITKI).
  • List examples of normal microbiota ("flora").
  • Understand dysbiosis and its consequences.
  • Compare and contrast probiotics and prebiotics.
  • Define tissue tropism and identify requirements for it.
  • Learn the 6 steps required for the establishment of infectious diseases.
  • Apply material to clinical settings.

Microbiota

  • Core microbiome- species present at a specific site in 95% or more of individuals.
  • Secondary microbiome- species present in smaller numbers at specific sites, varying between individuals.
  • Normal flora depends on pathogenicity, virulence & host response.
  • Often a mutualistic relationship.

Normal Microbiota

  • Common locations include: skin (especially moist areas), respiratory tract (nose and oropharynx), digestive tract (mouth and large intestine), urinary tract (anterior urethra), and genital system (vagina).
  • Less common: rest of respiratory and digestive tract, urinary bladder, and uterus.
  • Diagnostically significant locations include: blood, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), synovial fluid, and deep tissues.

Role of Normal Flora

  • Keeping out invaders, like inhibiting new microbial arrivals via bacteriocins.
  • Role in human nutrition and metabolism, like synthesis of vitamins K and B.
  • Conversion of ingested compounds, where some bacteria modify carcinogenic compounds into less harmful substances.
  • Example with cyclamate, where it's transformed into a carcinogen.

Role of Normal Microbiota (cont.)

  • Immune stimulation. Normal microbiota can stimulate antibodies (like IgA).
  • Common source of infection, where normal microbiota can cause disease in immunocompromised individuals, or if moved to a new body niche.

Frequent Types of Normal Bacterial Microbiota

  • Effect of antibiotics on gut microbiota.
  • Fecal samples were collected from 4 antibiotic-treated patients (A, B, C, D) to study changes.
  • Changes in microbiota were observed both during and after treatment.

What Happens When the Normal Microflora is Disrupted?

  • Dysbiosis is linked with anxiety, depression, schizophrenia (90% of serotonin produced in the gut).
  • Dysbiosis has a close link with other conditions, such as obesity, type I diabetes, celiac disease, and various other chronic diseases.

Bristol Stool Chart

  • A chart describing 7 different stool types.

Probiotic vs. Prebiotic

  • Prebiotic- food ingredient that supports the growth of microbes. Comes from types of carbohydrates (mostly fiber) that humans cannot digest.
  • Probiotic – live organism, when ingested, provides benefits. Typically gram-positive bacteria (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus) or yeasts (e.g., Saccharomyces). Found in supplements (yogurt, kefir, kombucha)

Tissue Tropism of Infectious Agents

  • Site of entry (e.g., Gonococcus: genital tract; HIV: any site).
  • Host receptors (e.g., ACE2 with SARS-CoV-2).
  • Temperature differentials (e.g., conditions at the foot are different from those in the interior of the body).

Bacterial Colonization

  • Resisting host defenses.
  • Competing with other microbes.
  • Taking advantage of host features like fibronectin on epithelial cells in poor health or in hospitals, the presence of fibronectin decreases, and gram-negative infections increase, like gram-negative pneumonia.
  • Antimicrobial properties of the host are also important for colonization.

Bacterial Colonization (cont.)

  • Microbial strategies to overcome those properties include adherence to epithelial cells to avoid getting engulfed, killing phagocytic cells, acquiring nutrients from host cells, modifying surface molecules to avoid being targeted, and using other techniques to survive.

Establishment of Infectious Diseases

  • Encounter (agent meets host).
  • Entry (agent enters host).
  • Spread (agent travels to different body sites from entry site).
  • Multiplication (agent increases in number).
  • Damage (agent, host response, or both harm the host).
  • Outcome, (where either pathogen or host survives).

Encounter

  • Fetus is usually sterile, but encounters some pathogens.
  • First encounter occurs at birth when exposed to mother's antibodies and colostrum.
  • Exogenous vs endogenous: Exogenous means a pathogen comes in from outside the body, and endogenous is a pathogen originating from inside (e.g. normal flora).

Entry

  • Microorganisms enter the body through cavities (like nose, mouth, respiratory).
  • Ingestion via food or water can cause entry (e.g., cholera, food poisoning).
  • Microbial penetration happens when it passes through epithelial barriers, such as after insect bites, cuts & wounds & spread elsewhere

Spread

  • Lateral propagation—spreading to neighboring areas
  • Dissemination—traveling to distant sites

Multiplication

  • Incubation period - time needed for infectious agents to overcome the host defenses.
  • Environmental factors affect multiplication
  • Constitutive defenses – need to evade host defenses– examples: complement and phagocytosis
  • Induced defenses: examples, humoral and cellular immunity

Damage

  • Type and intensity depends on tissue or organ affected.
  • Not always direct damage, can be due to host immune response.
  • Direct tissue damage by toxins, cell death, and harmful effects of endotoxins (i.e., LPS).

Outcome

  • Depends on steps from encounter to damage.
  • Was there infection (encounter)?
  • Was the entry successful?
  • Did the pathogen spread locally or to distant tissues?
  • Did the pathogen multiply successfully?
  • Did damage result?
  • Subverted normal host immune response?

Test Your Knowledge #2

  • What are the six things needed to establish viral infection?
  1. Encounter
  2. Entry
  3. Spread
  4. Multiplication
  5. Damage
  6. Outcome

Key Virological Principles

  • Virus-host interactions that can be permissive or non-permissive for certain cells
  • Virus host interactions dictate severity & duration of infection or disease
  • Cells have characteristics for viral infections- which can be cellular infections, aborted infections, cytolytic infections, persistent & chronic infection & oncogenic infections

Basic Characteristics of Pathogens

  • Antibiotic-resistant infections and deaths
  • Number of bacteria and fungi that pose a threat to the US

Also a Scientist

  • Information about researchers and their contributions; including, contributions to vaccines, microbiology, research.

Basic Characteristics of Pathogens (cont.)

  • Discussion about the threat from infectious agents in general (bacteria & fungi).

Host Pathogen Interactions Pt. I

  • Introduction to the topic

Immunity (cont.)

  • Innate and adaptive immunities
  • Physical, chemical, and cellular defenses
  • Active and passive immunities (natural and artificial/vaccination/maternal

Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity

  • Receptors (germline-encoded vs generated by somatic genetic recombination).
  • Receptor distribution (variety of cell types vs clonally expressed on lymphocytes).
  • Memory- (none or limited vs vast).

Cells of innate & adaptive immune system

  • Innate & adaptive immune systems come from a multipotent hematopoietic stem cell

Innate Immune System

  • Early, generalized, first-line defense.
  • Recognize microbes via pattern recognition receptors.
  • Stimulates adaptive immune responses after recognition of microbes

Innate Immune System (cont.)

  • Components based on cellular (Phagocytic cells, Pro-inflammatory cells, Natural Killer cells, Dendritic cells) and humoral (Cytokines, Complement) roles

Components of the Innate Immune System - Cellular

  • Skin
  • Mucous membrane surfaces
  • Phagocytic: cells (neutrophils, macrophages)-ingest and kill bacteria
  • Pro-inflammatory: cells (macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils)-induce host defenses.
  • Antigen Presenting cells (APCs)-recognize, process & present antigen to lymphocytes to initiates adaptive immunity
  • Natural Killer cells- kill infected or damaged cells like cancer
  • Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)- DNA (histones, granule proteins released by neutrophils, which "catch" microbes.

Components of the Innate Immune System - Humoral

  • Bile, gastric acid, mucus, tears, and normal microbiota

Complement- "complements antibodies"

  • Overall role- Makes invading microbes more susceptible to phagocytosis.
  • Promotes the inflammatory response.
  • Produces substances that attract white blood cells.
  • Lyses some microorganisms.
  • Classical, Alternative, & Lectin pathways

Test Your Knowledge

  • LPS can block the MAC, so gram-negative bacteria would most likely avoid being killed.

Consequences of Recognizing Antigen: Induced Innate Immunity

  • Increased antimicrobial peptides are produced
  • Inflammation & inflammatory mediators; example, cytokines, chemokines, etc.
  • Activation of complement

Inflammation

  • Characterized by redness, heat, swelling, and pain.
  • Leads to loss of function

Adaptive Immune Response

  • Initial step when innate immunity fails
  • Antibodies recognize & bind to microbial epitopes; preventing spread, attachment, promoting phagocytosis.
  • Cell-mediated immunity – leukocytes destroy invading cells

Lymphocytes

  • CD8 cytotoxic T cells - kill virus-infected & damaged cells.
  • CD4 helper T cells- assist cytotoxic T & B cells.
  • B cells (plasma cells) – produce antibodies.
  • Regulatory T cells- modulate the immune response.

Lymphocyte Development, Activation, & Antigen Presentation

  • T & B cells undergo development to distinguish self from non-self.
  • T cells that wrongly identify self are not selected
  • Cells become active when presented with an antigen
  • Activated helper T cells proliferate and secrete cytokines to activate other cells (CD8 T cells & B cells).
  • Activated cytotoxic T cells kill cells with the antigen.
  • Activated B cells proliferate & synthesize Immunoglobulins.

Immunoglobulins

  • Immunoglobulin, aka antibodies, are glycoprotein molecules.
  • IgG, IgE, IgM, IgA, IgD

Initiation of Adaptive Immune Responses by Innate Immunity (AKA Antigen Presentation)

  • Microbial antigen appears
  • Dendritic cell recognizes microbe via pattern recognition receptors
  • Dendritic cell takes up microbial antigen, migrates to lymph node, matures
  • Dendritic cell processes the antigen, loads it onto MHC class II molecules
  • Dendritic cell presents antigen to CD4+ helper T cells
  • Activated CD4 T cells activate B cells that differentiate into plasma cells
  • Plasma cells produce antibodies, eliminating the antigen

Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)

  • Glycoproteins found on different cells, upregulated during innate immunity.
  • Used in antigen recognition to activate T cells.
  • MHC class I
    • presents endogenous antigens
    • Found on all nucleated cells
    • presents antigen to Cytotoxic (CD8) T cells
  • MHC class II
    • presents exogenous antigens
    • Found on APCs (dendritic cells, macrophages, B cells)
    • presents antigen to Helper (CD4) T cells

Immunological Memory

  • Once an organism stimulates adaptive response, there's memory to prevent subsequent exposures from having same effects.
  • Enhanced actions from antibodies and effector T cells

Test Your Knowledge #3

  • What are the differences between MHC class I and class II?
  • MHC Class I presents endogenous antigens from the cytoplasm, found on all nucleated cells, and presents antigen to cytotoxic (CD8) T cells.
  • MHC Class II presents exogenous antigens, found on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and presents antigen to helper (CD4) T cells.

Also a Scientist

  • Information about scientists.
  • Includes their work & contributions

Additional Notes

  • Various additional notes on different topics.

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Description

Test your knowledge on the role of bacterial microbiota in gut health. This quiz covers important concepts such as dysbiosis, prebiotics vs. probiotics, and the effects of gut bacteria on immunity and carcinogenesis. Explore fundamental differences between various types of bacteria and their functions.

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