Aztec Worldview and Identity

Aztec worldview and identity

• Aztec worldview included intertwined mythology, cosmology, and social structure.
• The Aztecs believed in a pantheon of gods. Each represented natural elements and forces, influencing daily life and rituals.
• Aztec cosmology included cycles of creation and destruction, shaping their understanding of time and existence.
• Human sacrifice was considered a vital offering to the gods to maintain cosmic order and appease divine forces.
• Aztec identity tied to agricultural practices; Maize was central to their diet, culture, and spiritual beliefs.

Aztec worldview and values

• The Aztec worldview emphasized the interconnectedness of life and rituals, and believed in cyclical time.
• Human sacrifice played a crucial role in maintaining cosmic balance and pleasing the gods.
• The Aztecs believed in multiple gods, each representing different aspects of life, nature, and civilization.
• Cosmic balance was essential and rituals ensured harmony between the gods, humans, and the natural world.
• Human sacrifice was a necessary offering to the gods for agricultural fertility and community survival.
• The concept of 'tláloc' embodied the importance of water and agricultural cycles in Aztec society.

Calpolli in Aztec culture

• Calpolli served as fundamental social and political units in Aztec society, including groups of families that shared land, resources, and responsibilities.
• Each calpolli had its own leaders, known as calpullec; They managed local affairs and represented the group in larger councils.
• Land distribution and collective farming were facilitated by Calpollis, ensuring all members shared the benefits and responsibilities of agricultural labor.
• Members of a calpolli were often bound by kinship ties; this strengthened social bonds and community cohesion among families.
• Calpollis played a crucial role in military organization by providing soldiers during wars and supporting the Aztec state's expansion efforts.

Catholic Monarchs: Ferdinand and Isabella

• Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile united Spain in the late 15th century.
• Reconquista was completed; exploration was promoted; the Spanish Inquisition was established, laying the foundation for Spain's emergence as a powerful European nation.
• Their marriage in 1469 unified two of the most powerful kingdoms in Spain.
• They completed the Reconquista by capturing Granada in 1492, ending Muslim rule in the Iberian Peninsula.
• Ferdinand and Isabella sponsored Christopher Columbus's 1492 expedition, leading to discovering the Americas.
• The Spanish Inquisition was established in 1478 to maintain Catholic orthodoxy and expel non-Christians from Spain.

Colonial expansion

• Colonial expansion refers to the territorial acquisition and control by one nation over foreign territories, often leading to economic exploitation and cultural assimilation.
• It enabled European powers to establish trading outposts, plantations, and settlements in distant lands.
• Colonial powers leveraged military and technological superiority to subjugate indigenous populations.
• The desire for resources, markets, and strategic advantage drove the scramble for colonies in Africa and Asia.
• Colonies were viewed as outlets for surplus populations and means of projecting power and influence.

Conquistador's Formula

• Conquistador's Formula refers to the strategies employed by Spanish explorers and conquerors in the Americas.
• Characterized by military might, alliances, and exploitation of native rivalries to claim territories and resources for Spain.
• Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Aztec and Inca empires, respectively.
• The formula often relied on superior weaponry, including firearms and steel, alongside horses for mobility and shock value.
• Alliances with local tribes were crucial because Spanish forces frequently allied with enemies of the dominant indigenous power.
• The spread of diseases like smallpox devastated indigenous populations, facilitating easier conquests and control for the Spaniards.

Cortes's strategies as a conquistador

• Hernán Cortés employed diplomatic alliances, military tactics, and psychological warfare to conquer the Aztec Empire.
• He leveraged indigenous rivalries and advanced weaponry to establish Spanish dominance in Mesoamerica.
• Cortés formed alliances with various indigenous groups discontented with Aztec rule, notably the Tlaxcalans.
• Interpreting skills and communication with Malintzin, a key translator, were used to negotiate and strategize.
• Military superiority included firearms, cavalry, and steel weapons, which overwhelmed Aztec forces significantly.
• Psychological tactics such as exploiting superstition about Quetzalcoatl helped demoralize Aztec warriors.

Education system in Aztec society

• Aztec education system was highly structured, emphasizing religion, military training, and practical skills.
• Schools were divided by gender and social class, and all children received a tailored education aligned with their societal roles.
• Calmecac schools educated noble boys, focusing on advanced subjects like philosophy, astronomy, and military strategy.
• Telpochcalli schools served commoners, teaching vocational skills, basic reading, and physical education for military service.
• Education reflected the Aztecs' commitment to knowledge and cultural values, and was compulsory for both boys and girls.
• Rituals and religious teachings were integral, influencing moral character and communal identity among students.

Encomienda system in colonial Mexico

• Encomienda system in colonial Mexico was a labor system that granted Spanish settlers control over Indigenous communities.
• System led to exploitation and significant demographic decline among native populations due to harsh conditions and diseases introduced by Europeans.
• Established in the early 16th century, the system facilitated Spanish colonization and resource extraction.
• Spanish encomenderos were responsible for the protection and Christianization of Indigenous peoples.
• The system contributed to widespread population decline among Indigenous groups due to overwork and disease.
• Reforms in the late 16th century aimed to reduce abuses and improve conditions for Indigenous laborers.

Expansion and tribute in the Aztec Empire

• The Aztec Empire expanded through military conquest and strategic alliances.
• Tribute was demanded from conquered peoples to sustain its economy and support its large urban population.
• Tribute included food, textiles, precious metals, and valuable goods, forming a crucial part of Aztec wealth and power.
• Expansion often involved warfare, leading to the subjugation of neighboring city-states and the incorporation of diverse cultures.
• The tribute system created resentment among conquered peoples, sometimes leading to resistance and uprisings against Aztec rule.
• Aztec society was highly hierarchical, with elites receiving the majority of tribute goods, reinforcing social stratification within the empire.

Exploration of the New World

• The Exploration of the New World, beginning in the late 15th century, involved European voyages to the Americas, leading to significant cultural exchanges, colonization, and trade routes that reshaped global dynamics.
• Key figures include Christopher Columbus, John Cabot, and Hernán Cortés, who paved the way for European expansion.
• The Columbian Exchange facilitated the transfer of crops, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds.
• Spanish, French, and English empires contested territories, impacting indigenous populations and altering the course of civilization.
• Exploration motivated by trade, wealth, and the spread of Christianity transformed global economics and geopolitics.

Expulsion of Jews from Spain

• In 1492, the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella expelled Jews from Spain. Culminating centuries of Jewish life, cultural contributions, and persecution within the Iberian Peninsula.
• The Alhambra Decree mandated the expulsion of Jews who refused to convert to Christianity.
• Many Jews fled to Portugal, North Africa, and the Ottoman Empire seeking refuge and safety.
• The expulsion significantly impacted Spanish economy and culture, leading to a loss of skilled craftsmen and intellectuals.
• Some Jews converted to Christianity, known as Conversos, faced suspicion and persecution for maintaining Jewish practices in secret.

Franciscan priests in New Spain

• Franciscan priests in New Spain played a pivotal role in the evangelization of indigenous peoples.
• These people were establishing missions and contributing to the development of education and agriculture in colonial Mexico in the 16th and 17th centuries.
• Franciscans arrived in New Spain in 1524, led by Juan de Zumárraga, focusing on converting indigenous populations.
• They established numerous missions, which became centers of community life, agriculture, and education, impacting local culture.
• The Franciscans emphasized a lifestyle of poverty and humility, reflecting the teachings of St. Francis of Assisi.
• Bernardino de Sahagún documented indigenous languages and cultures, aiding in the preservation of native traditions.

Geography and its influence on Aztec society

• The geography of the Valley of Mexico influenced Aztec society.
• Aztec civilization impacted agriculture, trade, urban planning, and military strategy, shaping their culture and everyday life.
• The region's lake system facilitated trade and transportation among city-states, fostering economic growth.
• Mountain ranges provided natural defenses against invasions and influenced settlement patterns.
• Volcanic soil in the area contributed to fertile agricultural lands, leading to surplus food production.
• The climate varied between arid and temperate zones, affecting crop choices and resource distribution.

Hernan Cortes and his expedition

• Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes led an expedition resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire.
• His conquest resulted in the establishment of Spanish rule in Mexico.
• Cortes landed in Mexico in 1519 with around 600 men, seeking wealth and glory.
• He formed alliances with local tribes, notably the Tlaxcalans, against the Aztecs.
• Cortes captured Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, in 1521, largely due to superior technology and strategy.
• His expedition led to significant cultural and demographic changes, including the spread of European diseases among indigenous populations.

Hernan Cortes and the conquest of the Aztecs

• Hernán Cortés led the Spanish expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire.
• The fall fundamentally altered the social, cultural, and political landscape of Mesoamerica in the early 16th century.
• Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519, initially welcomed by the Aztecs due to their belief he was a returning god.
• The conquest was marked by alliances with local tribes disenchanted with Aztec rule, such as the Tlaxcalans.
• The fall of Tenochtitlán in 1521 marked the end of Aztec dominance and the establishment of Spanish colonial rule.
• Factors aiding Cortés included superior weaponry, tactics, and the unintentional spread of diseases like smallpox among indigenous populations.

Hernan Cortes and the Conquistador's Formula

• Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes, led the expedition that resulted in the fall of the Aztec Empire.
• This exemplifying the pattern of conquest through military strength, alliances, and exploitation of local divisions.
• Cortes arrived in Mexico in 1519 with about 500 soldiers, seeking wealth and glory.
• His alliances with indigenous groups, like the Tlaxcalans, were crucial for defeating the Aztecs.
• Cortes captured Tenochtitlan in 1521, marking the collapse of the Aztec Empire. -'Conquistador's Formula' include the use of technology tactics, and indigenous discontent to achieve conquest.

Human sacrifice in Aztec culture

• Human sacrifice in Aztec culture was a religious practice to nourish the gods, ensure agricultural fertility, and maintain cosmic balance, often involving elaborate rituals and ceremonies.
• The Aztecs believed their gods required blood for nourishment, particularly the sun god, Huitzilopochtli.
• Victims were often prisoners of war, with sacrifices performed during important religious festivals.
• Sacrificial rites included offerings on temple altars, using obsidian knives for ritualistic killings.
• Estimates suggest thousands of sacrifices occurred annually, reflecting the culture's emphasis on divine appeasement.

Impact of smallpox on the Aztec Empire

• Smallpox devastated the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century.
• The disease significantly weakened the population and facilitating Spanish conquest amid social and political upheaval.
• The disease spread rapidly, killing millions and drastically reducing the Aztec workforce.
• Cortes and his forces exploited the chaos caused by the epidemic to conquer the Aztecs more easily.
• Smallpox disrupted traditional practices, leading to a collapse of societal structures.
• The epidemic showcased the vulnerability of indigenous populations to European diseases

Independence of Mexico from Spain

• From 1810 to 1821 the struggle for the Independence of Mexico from Spain, was marked by significant battles, leadership figures like Miguel Hidalgo, and eventual liberation, leading to the establishment of Mexico as a sovereign nation.
• Miguel Hidalgo's 'Grito de Dolores' on September 16, 1810, sparked the revolution against Spanish colonial rule.
• Key leaders included José María Morelos, Vicente Guerrero, and Agustín de Iturbide.
• The war involved battles and events, like the Siege of Cuautla and the Battle of Monte de las Cruces.
• Mexico gained independence on September 27, 1821, with the signing of the Plan of Iguala.

Influence of customs on decision making

• Customs shape the frameworks within which decisions are made.
• Customs influence values, priorities, and social structures, ultimately guiding behavior across cultures and eras.
• Cultural norms dictate acceptable choices and the expected outcomes of those choices in various societies.
• Rituals reinforce decision-making processes, providing legitimacy and unity among members of a group.
• Legal systems derive authority from traditional customs, affecting the consequences of decisions within a society.
• Understanding local customs is crucial for effective communication and negotiation during international relations and business practices.

Marketplace and trade in Aztec economy

• Marketplace and trade in the Aztec economy thrived on a complex marketplace system.
• Bustling markets where goods such as textiles, food, and luxury items were traded.
• Currency, primarily cacao beans and cotton cloth, facilitated commerce, reflecting societal wealth and class distinctions.
• Tlatelolco was the central marketplace, hosting thousands of vendors and diverse goods from across the Aztec Empire.
• Merchants, known as pochteca, were vital in long-distance trade and often held significant social status.
• Trade routes extended across Mesoamerica, connecting various cultures and enabling the exchange of resources and ideas.
• Barter was common but standardized goods like cacao and cotton served as currency for larger transactions.

Mestizos in Mexico

• Mestizos in Mexico are individuals of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry.
• They are a significant part of the population and reflecting the country's colonial past.
• Mestizos play a critical role in Mexico's cultural and social identity.
• Mestizos generally emerged in the colonial era, particularly following the Spanish conquest in the 16th century.
• The term 'mestizo' derived from the Spanish word for 'mixed' and signifies a blend of cultures.
• Mestizo identity influenced Mexican art, music, and traditions, showcasing a fusion of Indigenous and European elements.
• Mestizos comprise the majority of Mexico's population, affecting political and social dynamics throughout the country.

Muslim rule in Al-Andalus

• Muslim rule in Al-Andalus began in 711 AD, marked by the Umayyad conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.
• The conquest led to a flourishing of culture, science, and learning that lasted for several centuries until the Reconquista culminated in 1492.
• The Umayyad Caliphate established Córdoba as a major cultural and economic center during its peak.
• Coexistence among Muslims, Christians, and Jews led to advancements in philosophy, mathematics, and architecture.
• The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties later centralized power and influenced the political landscape of Al-Andalus.
• The fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim political power in Spain.

Physical landscape of Tenochtitlan

• Aztec city of Tenochtitlan, was built on an island in Lake Texcoco
• Landscape had canals, chinampas, and a majestic temple district, showcasing advanced engineering and urban planning skills.
• The city was founded in 1325 and became the capital of the Aztec Empire, thriving on trade and agriculture.
• Chinampas, or floating gardens, enabled intensive agriculture, facilitating high food production and supporting a growing population.
• Tenochtitlan's layout included a central plaza, temples, and residential areas, efficiently organized to enhance urban life.
• The arrival of Spanish conquistadors in 1519 led to the city's downfall, dramatically altering its physical landscape.

Physical landscape of the Aztec Empire

• The Aztec Empire's physical landscape included high plateaus, lush valleys, and volcanic mountains,
• Lake Texcoco served as the heart of the empire, facilitating trade and agriculture.
• The empire was located in what is now central Mexico, covering diverse terrains.
• The capital city, Tenochtitlan, was built on an island in Lake Texcoco.
• The region's climate ranged from arid to humid, affecting agricultural practices.
• Major mountains, like the Sierra Madre, provided natural resources and influenced settlement patterns.

Reasons for Spanish Exploration

• Spanish exploration was driven by the pursuit of wealth, spread of Christianity.
• Also, competition with rival nations and advancements in navigation technology during the Age of Discovery fueled the efforts.
• The search for gold and silver led to the conquest of vast territories in the Americas.
• Spanish conquistadors aimed to convert indigenous populations to Christianity, often using force.
• Rivalry with other European powers spurred Spain to claim new lands and resources.
• Innovations like the astrolabe and improved maps aided explorers in their voyages.

Reconquista

• The Reconquista refers to the period in the Iberian Peninsula when Christian kingdoms pushed back Muslim rule over centuries.
• It began in the 8th century and ended in the late 15th century.
• The Reconquista involved a series of battles and skirmishes between Christian and Muslim forces.
• Key events include the Battle of Tours and the capture of Granada.
• The Reconquista ultimately unified the territories of modern-day Spain and Portugal.

Religious beliefs and practices of the Aztecs

• The Aztecs practiced a polytheistic religion centered on a pantheon of gods.
• The Aztecs included rituals, offerings, and human sacrifices to ensure cosmic balance and agricultural fertility.
• Key gods included Huitzilopochtli (war), Tlaloc (rain), and Quetzalcoatl (wisdom).
• Temples, such as the Templo Mayor, were central to religious ceremonies and sacrifices.
• Human sacrifice was seen as necessary to nourish the gods and maintain the world's order.
• Religious festivals were vital, featuring music, dance, and elaborate ceremonies to honor deities.

Role of disease in the conquest of the Aztecs

• European diseases, such as smallpox, devastated the Aztec population.
• Disease weakened their society, which ultimately facilitated the Spanish conquest led by Hernán Cortés in 1521.
• Smallpox arrived in the Americas with Spanish explorers, causing mortality among indigenous peoples.
• The lack of immunity in the Aztecs contributed to rapid disease spread and demographic collapse.
• Diseases like influenza and measles impacted the Aztecs, compounding the effects of smallpox.
• Cortés exploited the weakened state of the Aztecs, forming alliances with rival tribes.

Role of La Malinche in Cortes' success

• La Malinche, an indigenous woman, served as translator and advisor to Hernán Cortés.
• La Malinche enabled communication and fostered alliances that were crucial for the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire.
• Her proficiency in Nahuatl and Spanish facilitated key negotiations with native groups.
• La Malinche's insights into Aztec culture helped Cortés exploit weaknesses and integrate local allies.
• She is often viewed controversially as a traitor by some and a victim of colonialism by others.
• Her role reflect's power and gender roles during the conquest.

Role of poetry in Aztec culture

• Poetry served as a vital medium for expressing spirituality, societal values, and personal emotions in Aztec culture.
• Society integrated through rituals and education, reflecting the civilization's worldview and customs.
• Poetry was recited at religious ceremonies, reinforcing the connection between the divine and everyday life in Aztec society.
• Flower and song (in xochitl in cuicatl) encapsulated the duality of beauty and mortality, emphasizing the ephemeral nature of existence.
• Poets contributed to legacy, often serving as historians and chronicling myths and events through their verses.
• Influence from Nahuatl language, enriched their poetry with metaphors, symbolisms, and visual imagery, showcasing their linguistic talent.

Roles of the emperor in Aztec society

• The Aztec emperor held supreme political, military, and religious authority.
• Ruled as the intermediary between the gods and the people while ensuring societal stability and expansion through conquests.
• Emperors were seen as divine or semi-divine figures, legitimizing their rule through religious rituals.
• They commanded the military and led campaigns to acquire tribute and resources from other city-states.
• The emperor was responsible for administering justice and maintaining the legal system within the empire.
• Succession typically was through heredity, but capable leaders could also rise from noble families or military ranks.

Significance of Aztec temples

• Temples were central to religious practices, symbolizing civilization's cosmology, societal structure, and connection to deities.
• The Aztecs reflected advanced architectural skills and cultural significance.
• Temples featured pyramids, serving as platforms for rituals and ceremonies, particularly human sacrifices to appease gods.
• Templo Mayor in Tenochtitlan was the most significant temple, dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc.
• Temples showcased intricate carvings and sculptures, demonstrating the artistic talent and religious beliefs.
• The construction and maintenance of temples played a crucial role in the economy and political power of the Aztec empire.

Spanish exploration and geography

• Spanish exploration in the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries led to the discovery of vast territories and mapping.
• Discovery led to the establishment of colonial provinces that influenced global trade and cultural exchanges.
• Key figures: Christopher Columbus, Hernán Cortés, and Francisco Pizarro,who explored and conquered large regions.
• Spanish explorers used advanced navigational techniques and early maps.
• The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) divided new lands between Spain and Portugal.
• The New World and colonial claims shaping were divided.
• Spanish colonies from present-day southwestern United States to much of Central and South America impacting indigenous cultures.

Spanish Inquisition

• The Spanish Inquisition was a religious tribunal established by Catholic monarchs in Spain.
• The purpose was to enforce religious orthodoxy and used methods such as torture and execution.
• Occurred in the late 15th century under the rule of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile.
• Jewish and Muslim populations were Targeted, leading to forced conversions or expulsion.
• There was widespread fear and paranoia.
• It lasted for over three centuries and was officially disbanded in 1834.

Spanish weapons versus Aztec weapons

• In the 16th century, Spanish conquistadors wielded advanced weaponry like crossbows and firearms.
• Aztec's wooden weaponry included and stone weapons, spears and atlatls, affecting warfare.
• Spanish armor provided better protection against Aztec weapons, which were primarily made of obsidian and wood.
• Spanish used cavalry effectively, which the Aztec armies were unprepared to combat.
• Aztecs utilized psychological warfare, including intimidation and tactics such as surprise attacks.
• Gunpowder weapons such as cannons and arquebuses revolutionized combat during the Spanish conquest. They weapon and gave an advantage over traditional arms.

Sponsorship of Christopher Columbus

• Christopher Columbus was sponsored by King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain in 1492.
• Goal was to find a westward route to Asia. His efforts led to his discovery of the Americas.
• Columbus sought funding due to Spain's desire for trade routes and competition with Portugal.
• His voyage included three ships. They were the Nina, the Pinta, and the Santa Maria.
• The sponsorship was part of Spain's oversea expansion and empire-building.
• Landing in the Bahamas marked the beginning of European colonization.

Structure of Aztec society

• Aztec society was hierarchically structured.
• Society was structured featuring a ruling class of nobles and priests, a middle class of artisans and merchants, and a lower class of peasants and slaves.
• Each social class played crucial roles in the empire's functioning.
• The emperor held supreme power, considered divine and responsible for maintaining order and prosperity.
• Nobles governed regions and managed tribute collection, consolidating wealth and influence within the empire.
• Priests conducted religious ceremonies, essential for appeasing gods and ensuring agricultural fertility.
• Slaves, usually war captives or debtors, had limited rights and could earn freedom through service.

The Code of Chivalry

• The Code of Chivalry was a moral and ethical code governing knights.
• This emphasizing virtues such as bravery, honor, loyalty, and respect for women while shaping medieval social conduct and ideals of knighthood.
• Originated in the medieval period that reflected the values of feudal society and the expectations of noble warriors.
• Incorporated Christian principles promoting piety and the protection of the weak. It was linked to the Crusades.
• Chivalric literature, like Arthurian tales, popularized the ideals of chivalry and romanticized knightly behavior.
• Varied by region, common tenets included courage in battle, loyalty to one's lord, and courtly love.

Tribute system in Aztec society

• The tribute system in Aztec society was a complex framework.
• Conquered territories were providing goods, resources, and labor, supporting the empire's economy and governance while reinforcing social hierarchies and cultural identity among the Aztec people.
• Tribute was paid in commodities such as textiles, food, and precious metals, highlighting regional specialties.
• The system helped sustain the Aztec elite and religious institutions ensuring societal stability and power.
• Tribute collectors, known as 'tlacatecuhtli', oversaw the delivery and management of resources from tributary states.
• Failure to pay tribute could lead to consequences, including military retaliation or economic sanctions.

Aqueducts

• Aqueducts were elevated channels or bridges constructed by ancient civilizations to transport water over long distances with gravity.
• Aqueducts were vital in supplying water to cities, baths, and farms in ancient times.
• Romans were famous for their intricate aqueduct systems, some of which are still in use today.
• Aqueducts were typically constructed with a slight downward gradient to ensure the continuous flow of water.
• The design and engineering of aqueducts varied across different ancient civilizations like the Greeks, Persians, and Mayans.

Aztecs

• Aztecs were a Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico from the 14th to the 16th centuries.
• The Aztecs were known for their complex social structure and advanced agricultural practices.
• They worshiped multiple gods and engaged in rituals, including human sacrifice.
• The Aztecs built their capital city of Tenochtitlan on an island in Lake Texcoco. The capital was connected by causeways to the mainland.
• They were skilled artisans, creating jewelry, pottery, and textiles.
• The Spanish conquest led by Hernan Cortes in 1521 leading to the downfall of the Aztec Empire.

Aztec society hierarchy

• Aztec society was stratified, with a hierarchy that included nobles, priests, warriors, merchants, and farmers.
• This structure reflected roles for sustaining the empire's power and culture.
• The ruling class included the emperor and noble families held influence.
• Priests conducted rituals and maintained religious practices and served as intermediaries between gods and people.
• Warriors gained status through military achievements, often acquiring land and wealth.
• Farmers constituted the largest group and provided for agriculture.

Brain drain

• Brain drain refers to the emigration of highly skilled individuals.
• The loss involved leaving their home country with a shortage of talented professionals.
• Brain drain can negatively impact the economy and development of the country of origin.
• Brain drain is commonly seen in fields such as healthcare, technology, and science.
• In some cases, it may lead to a decrease in innovation and productivity.
• Policies for instance offering incentives or improving working conditions can help mitigate brain drain.

Caliphate

• A Caliphate is a system of Islamic government led by a caliph who is considered a political and religious successor to Prophet Muhammad.
• Caliphs ruled over Muslim territories and were both religious and political leaders.
• The first Caliphate was established after the death of Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century.
• Caliphates played a significant role in spreading Islam and governing Muslim lands for centuries.
• The Ottoman Empire was the last Caliphate, abolished in 1924 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk as part of Turkey's modernization.

Calmecac

• Calmecac was an elite school in Mesoamerica, particularly among the Aztecs, where noble children were educated in various disciplines including religion, philosophy, and militaristic training.
• Only the children of nobility and certain privileged classes attended Calmecac.
• Students learned essential skills for leadership, such as oratory, ethics, and warfare.
• The curriculum included not just practical skills but also poetry and history.
• Calmecac was distinct from another type of school, the Telpochcalli, which catered to commoners.

Calpolli

• Calpolli was a unit of organization in ancient Mesoamerican communities serving as a social and administrative institution.
• Calpulli were based on kinship ties and residents shared resources and responsibilities.
• Each calpolli had its own leader and served as a self-governing entity within larger cities.
• Members of calpolli often had common economic activities such as farming or craft production.
• These units were crucial for maintaining social order and facilitating relations between the community and rulers.

Chinampas

• Chinampas were artificial islands used by the Aztecs for agriculture.
• Constructed on lakes and enriched with sediment with a variety of crops.
• The Aztecs used a system of canals for irrigation on chinampas.
• These agricultural plots were productive and sustainable.
• Chinampas allowed the Aztecs to cultivate crops in areas where traditional agriculture would have been impossible.
• Chinampas were a component of the Aztec economy and diet.

Codex

• A codex is a manuscript book with pages bound like a modern book.
• The format is rather that of a rolled format like a scroll.
• A codex can contain written works, illustrations, or gives more flexibility in organizing information.
• Codices were developed by the Romans around the 1st century AD and replaced scrolls as a common format.
• The Codex Sinaiticus is one of the oldest known Christian Bibles, dating back to the 4th century.
• Codices played a part in preserving ancient texts for future generations.

Conquistador

• Spanish explorers and soldiers colonized the Americas.
• Conquerors were heavily motivated by the pursuit of wealth, glory, and spreading Christianity.
• These explorers played a role: downfall of the Aztec and Inca empires in the early 16th century.
• Cortes and Pizarro are known as two of the most iconic conquistadors due to their conquests.
• The expeditions of the conquistadors led to the introduction of European diseases and colonization.

Conversos

• Conversos were Jews in Spain and Portugal who converted to Christianity.
• They were often under pressure during the Inquisition, still secretly maintaining their Jewish practices.
• Many suffered discrimination and suspicion from both Christians and Jews.
• The term 'Marrano' was often used pejoratively and implied false coverison.
• Conversos played significant roles in both early colonial exploration and commerce.
• The Inquisition targeted Conversos suspected for heresy and forced them to abandon their heritage.

Customs

• Customs refer to traditional and practices
• these practices evolve within a community while reflecting its culture.
• Customs can include community cohesion rituals, celebrations, and social etiquette.
• These vary in cultures and affect social structures.
• Customs are the product of societal globalization.
• Understanding customs is essential for artifacts.

Dona Marina

• Dona Marina, also known as La Malinche, was a Nahua woman who played a crucial role.
• She also served Hernán Cortés as as advisor.
• She was born around 1500. She was born into slavery before becoming a key figure.
• Dona Marina's linguistic skills facilitated communication between the Spaniards and Indigenous peoples.
• Dona Marina is a controversial figure.

El Cid

• El Cid, or Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, was a Spanish military leader.
• He was famed for his battles during the Reconquista.
• This symbolized chivalry and Spanish nationalism.
• El Cid was born in Vivar, near Burgos, around 1043.
• His exploits were popularized in the epic poem and 'Cantar de mio Cid'.
• El Cid the city of Valencia and ruled.

Encomenderos

• Encomenderos were Spanish colonists with the labor in Native people.
• They were granted land in the Americas while offering religious education.
• The system began.
• Encomenderos were colonists for abusive in populations.
• It was abloloshed and transitioned.

Huitzilopochtli

• Huitzilopochtli was an Aztec's deity.