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Questions and Answers

What type of damage can occur to DNA as a result of exposure to various agents?

  • Temporary damage
  • Repairable damage
  • Irreparable damage (correct)
  • Reversible damage

    • What is one site where protein synthesis occurs and can be affected by damage?

  • Golgi Apparatus
  • Nucleus
  • Mitochondria
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) (correct)

    • What is the structure that provides scaffolding and 'motor' functions for cells?

  • Cytoskeleton (correct)
  • Nucleolus
  • Cytoplasm
  • Cell Membrane

    • What is the process by which cells undergo programmed cell death?

    <p>Apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the cellular components that suffer damage upon exposure to various agents?

    <p>Other cellular components, including the ER and cytoskeleton</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of protein synthesis that occurs after transcription?

    <p>Post-translational processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of self-eating in cells?

    <p>Autophagy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between autophagy and necrosis?

    <p>Autophagy is a natural process, while necrosis is a pathological process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the appearance of cells undergoing autophagy?

    <p>Vacuolization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of autophagy in cells?

    <p>To recycle cellular components and maintain cellular health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the cellular components during autophagy?

    <p>They are degraded by lysosomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of lysosomes in autophagy?

    <p>To fuse with vacuoles and degrade cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of impaired autophagy?

    <p>Impaired cellular homeostasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the condensed chromatin in cells undergoing autophagy?

    <p>Pyknosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of damage to lysosomal membranes?

    <p>Leakage of enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of energy for energy-dependent cellular functions?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of damage to cellular membranes?

    <p>Impaired transport functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can cause DNA damage?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of necrosis?

    <p>Inflammation and tissue damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of radiation?

    <p>Mutations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of apoptosis?

    <p>Programmed cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of hypoxia/ischemia?

    <p>DNA damage and cell injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the sensors in the ER membrane?

    <p>To detect the presence of misfolded proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the amount of misfolded proteins is too great to be corrected?

    <p>The mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis is induced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the unfolded protein response?

    <p>To protect the cell from the harmful consequences of misfolded proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of proteins are involved in detecting misfolded proteins in the ER?

    <p>BH3-only proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of the terminal unfolded protein response?

    <p>Cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the sensors that detect misfolded proteins reside?

    <p>ER membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of defective DNA repair?

    <p>Accumulation of misfolded proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of mutations in DNA replication?

    <p>Increased cellular aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of insulin/IGF signaling in cellular aging?

    <p>It counteracts cellular aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of decreased protein synthesis?

    <p>Increased cell loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of cellular protein accumulation?

    <p>Increased cellular dysfunction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of TOR in cellular aging?

    <p>It promotes cellular aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of decreased cell functions?

    <p>Increased cellular aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of altered transcription?

    <p>Decreased cellular functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    DNA damage can be repaired in cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in post-translational protein processing.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytoskeleton is responsible for scaffolding and motor functions in cells.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apoptosis is a type of programmed cell death.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lysosomes are involved in protein synthesis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Autophagy is a process of cellular self-eating.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Superoxide is converted to hydrogen peroxide spontaneously and by the action of the enzyme superoxide dismutase.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The degree of injury from any injurious stimulus always remains the same.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intermediates are generated when oxygen is only partially reduced.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The production of misfolded proteins can increase the production of normal proteins.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cellular injury and death are always irreversible.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Telomerase is an enzyme that can repair DNA damage.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mutations can result in the production of abnormal proteins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hydrogen peroxide is a reactive oxygen species that can cause cellular damage.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Superoxide dismutase is an enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Enzymes are responsible for repairing DNA mutations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The extent of cellular injury depends on the severity of the injurious stimulus.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The accumulation of misfolded proteins can lead to cell death.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species are always beneficial to cellular metabolism.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cell injury can result from abnormalities in one or more essential cellular components.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Decreased protein synthesis can lead to cellular aging.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Autophagy is a process that occurs in response to DNA damage.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The enzyme myeloperoxidase is responsible for converting hypochlorous acid into a reactive compound.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Impaired autophagy can lead to inflammation and tissue damage.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The progression of cellular aging is influenced by the rate of telomere shortening.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mitochondria are not involved in the process of cell injury.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hypoxia can lead to cell injury by causing oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The nucleus is not a site of protein synthesis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Inflammation is a consequence of impaired autophagy.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cell injury can occur due to abnormalities in the lysosomal membrane.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calorie restriction can activate various signaling pathways and transcription factors that counteract cellular aging.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are involved in promoting cellular aging.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The target of rapamycin (TOR) is a signaling pathway that promotes cellular aging.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Decreased protein synthesis can lead to cellular protein accumulation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling is involved in promoting cellular aging.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    DNA damage can cause cardiovascular disease.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Replicative senescence is a mechanism of cellular aging caused by telomere shortening.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Defective protein homeostasis can lead to cardiovascular disease.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of apoptotic cells' nuclei?

    <p>Fragmented nuclei with condensed chromatin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the preparative regimen for colonoscopy on epithelial cells?

    <p>Induces apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of molecules are free radicals?

    <p>Reactive molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the process of cellular self-eating?

    <p>Autophagy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of radiation on cells?

    <p>Induces apoptosis and oxidative stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the primary cellular targets of injurious stimuli?

    <p>Mitochondria, cellular membranes, or nuclear DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cellular damage?

    <p>Causes oxidative stress and damage to cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of apoptotic cells' bodies?

    <p>Shrunken cell bodies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of damage can reactive oxygen species (ROS) cause?

    <p>Damage to lipids, proteins, and DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of ATP depletion in cells?

    <p>Impaired cellular functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal process by which molecular oxygen is reduced to generate water during mitochondrial respiration?

    <p>Reduction-oxidation (redox) reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of impaired autophagy?

    <p>Accumulation of damaged or dysfunctional cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of ischemia/hypoxia?

    <p>Reduced ATP production and increased ROS production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of impaired reduction of molecular oxygen during mitochondrial respiration?

    <p>Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the site where reactive oxygen species (ROS) are normally produced in small amounts during mitochondrial respiration?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase in cells?

    <p>To reduce oxidative stress by converting hydrogen peroxide to water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of nuclear DNA damage?

    <p>Genetic mutations and potential cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells?

    <p>Cellular damage or injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of energy for energy-dependent cellular functions?

    <p>ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of cellular membrane damage?

    <p>Disruption of cellular functions and potential cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal process that occurs during mitochondrial respiration to generate energy?

    <p>Reduction-oxidation (redox) reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of injury due to hypoxia?

    <p>Impaired oxidative phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of enzymes in the reduction of molecular oxygen during mitochondrial respiration?

    <p>To facilitate the sequential transfer of electrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of mitochondrial damage?

    <p>Impaired energy production and potential cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of superoxide in cellular injury?

    <p>It can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen during mitochondrial respiration?

    <p>Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of impaired oxidative phosphorylation?

    <p>Decreased ATP production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of mitochondrial respiration?

    <p>To generate energy for the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of radiation?

    <p>Generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of oxidative phosphorylation in cellular function?

    <p>It generates ATP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of mitochondrondrial damage?

    <p>Impaired oxidative phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of ischemia?

    <p>Impaired oxidative phosphorylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to cellular components when the ER membrane is damaged, leading to a decline in protein synthesis?

    <p>Enzymes and other components in the ER are damaged, causing a decrease in protein synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does p53 respond to damaged DNA?

    <p>p53 arrests cells in the G1 phase, allowing for DNA repair mechanisms to activate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of DNA repair mechanisms?

    <p>To correct DNA damage and allow cells to survive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to cells when the unfolded protein response is triggered?

    <p>Cells undergo programmed cell death (apoptosis) if the unfolded protein response is triggered.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of defective DNA repair?

    <p>Defective DNA repair can lead to mutations and tumorigenesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the unfolded protein response in cellular aging?

    <p>The unfolded protein response helps to prevent cellular protein accumulation and maintain protein homeostasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of impaired autophagy?

    <p>Impaired autophagy can lead to cellular protein accumulation and cellular aging.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of p53 in regulating cellular aging?

    <p>p53 triggers apoptosis in cells with damaged DNA, preventing further damage and promoting cellular aging.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The generation of ______ is increased by exposure to reversible injury but larger doses of the toxin or more prolonged ischemia.

    <p>radicals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    UV light, ______ and toxins, and during normal cellular aging, may cause necrosis.

    <p>radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stretched muscle in the leg survives ______ for 2 hours.

    <p>ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Oxygen deprivation for 3 hours, whereas cardiac muscle, which has higher metabolic needs, dies.

    Signup and view all the answers

    This also leads to ROS production because of incomplete ______ of oxygen.

    <p>reduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The genetic makeup of the individual may also determine the reaction to ______ agents.

    <p>injurious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The human body needs to burn ___________ kg of ATP every day.

    <p>50 to 75</p> Signup and view all the answers

    After 20 to 30 minutes of ______, the gene expression of the individual.

    <p>ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ischemia is a condition of ___________ deprivation.

    <p>oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    This may also determine the reaction to ______ and further damage to cellular components.

    <p>injurious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Damages to ATP can cause ___________ to many cellular components.

    <p>depletion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Insulin/ ______ signaling plays a role in cellular aging.

    <p>IGF</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Defective ______ repair can lead to cellular aging.

    <p>DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The reduction of ATP-dependent Na-K pump activity results in ___________ influx of Na and water.

    <p>an</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ER is affected by the reduction of ATP-dependent Na-K pump activity, leading to ___________ and dilation.

    <p>cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mutations in ______ replication can lead to misfolded proteins.

    <p>DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Accumulation of cellular proteins can lead to ______ cellular functions.

    <p>decreased</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The reduction of ATP-dependent Na-K pump activity can cause ___________ and damage to the ER.

    <p>swelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ signaling can counteract cellular aging.

    <p>TOR</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ATP-dependent Na-K pump plays a crucial role in maintaining the ___________ of the plasma membrane.

    <p>integrity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hypoxia and ___________ can cause damage to ATP and affect cellular functions.

    <p>ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Altered ______ can lead to cellular aging.

    <p>transcription</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cellular protein accumulation can lead to ______ cellular proteins.

    <p>misfolded</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Decreased protein synthesis can lead to ______ cellular functions.

    <p>decreased</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In some cases, pers ______ pa ______ o ______ c med ______ ors, such as ______ hormone-induced ______ of the breast, and ______ hyperp ______ sia, affect ______ end ______ rium.

    <p>onal, th, io, iators, the, enlargement, and, hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ stress can cause ______ in bone and muscle cells.

    <p>mechanical, changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ adaptations are responses to mutations and oncogenic ______ formation.

    <p>Pathologic, transformation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ allows cells to ______ their structure and function and thus ______.

    <p>stress, modify, survive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ is a decrease in the number of cells and, hence, may cause an ______ injury.

    <p>Atrophy, escape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ and organ ______ can occur as a result of ______ function.

    <p>Physiologic, shrink, abnormal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ injury can occur at the expense of normal ______ function.

    <p>Atrophy, cellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ is caused by ______ normal function, leading to ______ injury.

    <p>Atrophy, loss, cellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hyperp_______a can be psychological or pathological and, in naming by insulin-like growth factor, so cells cycle less and suffer boon_______s and suffer various biochemical sous_______ons.

    <p>lasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Grow_______ factors are produced by a variety of cell types. Pos_______orum

    <p>th</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In addition to these intrinsic abnormalities, damaged and dying en_______g________nt of the breast due to increased production of ductular cells induce low-_______ inflammation, and chronic inflammation pre-

    <p>largement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Grow_______ factors are responsible for stimulating production of ductular cells and, and some types of cancer.

    <p>th</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Surviving cells after death or removal of some of the cells in an organ is called comp_______satory _________a.

    <p>ensatory hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Damaged and dying cells can induce _________ inflammation, and chronic inflammation pre-.

    <p>low-grade</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Grow_______ factors are responsible for stimulating production of ductular cells and, and some types of _________.

    <p>cancer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hyperp_______a can be psychological or pathological and, in naming by _________-like growth factor, so cells cycle less and suffer boon_______s and suffer various biochemical sous_______ons.

    <p>insulin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their effects when damaged:

    <p>Plasma membrane = Releases enzymes and leads to necrosis Nucleus = Disrupts transcription-dependent cellular functions Lysosomal membranes = Releases ROS or other agents Cytoskeleton = Disrupts scaffolding and motor functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects:

    <p>Necrosis = Results in cellular death Autophagy = Removes damaged cellular components Apoptosis = Results in programmed cell death Protein synthesis = Results in production of normal proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reactive oxygen species with their effects:

    <p>Superoxide = Can cause cellular damage Hydrogen peroxide = Can cause cellular damage ROS = Can cause cellular damage Reactive oxygen species = Can cause cellular damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions:

    <p>Endoplasmic reticulum = Involved in post-translational protein processing Lysosomes = Involved in protein synthesis and autophagy Cytoskeleton = Involved in scaffolding and motor functions Nucleus = Involved in transcription-dependent cellular functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on cellular components:

    <p>Autophagy = Removes damaged cellular components Apoptosis = Removes damaged cellular components Necrosis = Results in cellular death Protein synthesis = Produces normal proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their effects on cellular functions:

    <p>Mitochondria = Provides energy for cellular functions Lysosomes = Involved in protein synthesis and autophagy Cytoskeleton = Involved in scaffolding and motor functions Nucleus = Involved in transcription-dependent cellular functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on cellular injury:

    <p>Necrosis = Results in cellular death Autophagy = Reduces cellular injury Apoptosis = Results in programmed cell death Protein synthesis = Produces normal proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their effects on cellular death:

    <p>Lysosomes = Results in cellular death Nucleus = Results in cellular death Cytoskeleton = Results in cellular death Mitochondria = Results in cellular death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding descriptions:

    <p>Hypoxia = Oxygen deficiency Ischemia = Reduced blood flow ATP = Energy source for cellular functions Oxidative phosphorylation = Process of generating ATP in mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects:

    <p>Hypoxia/Ischemia = Reduced ATP generation Oxidative phosphorylation = Increased ATP production Energy-dependent cellular systems = Failure of cellular functions Membrane transport = Disruption of cellular processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding cellular components:

    <p>Mitochondria = Site of ATP production Lysosomes = Involved in cellular recycling ER = Site of protein synthesis Cytoskeleton = Provides scaffolding and motor functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding cellular processes:

    <p>Synthesis = Production of proteins Turnover = Breakdown of proteins Membrane transport = Movement of molecules across membranes Scavenging = Removal of damaged cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding effects on cellular systems:

    <p>Severe drop in blood pressure = Shock Reduced oxygen supply = Hypoxia Inadequate ATP production = Cellular dysfunction Impaired autophagy = Accumulation of damaged cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding descriptions:

    <p>Cerebral artery disease = Narrowing or blockage of arteries supplying the brain Coronary artery disease = Narrowing or blockage of arteries supplying the heart Myocardial infarction = Death of heart muscle due to lack of oxygen Stroke = Blockage or rupture of blood vessels in the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their corresponding consequences:

    <p>Impaired energy-dependent cellular systems = Cellular dysfunction Disrupted membrane transport = Cellular injury Inadequate ATP production = Cellular dysfunction Impaired autophagy = Accumulation of damaged cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their corresponding descriptions:

    <p>Radicals = Highly reactive molecules that can cause cellular damage Oxidative stress = Imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants Reactive oxygen species = Molecules that can cause oxidative stress Antioxidants = Molecules that counteract oxidative stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reactive oxygen species (ROS) with their formation process:

    <p>Hydrogen peroxide = Partial reduction of oxygen Superoxide = Spontaneous conversion from oxygen Water = Complete reduction of oxygen Oxygen = Reduction-oxidation reaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions:

    <p>Mitochondria = Energy generation Lysosomes = Protein synthesis Endoplasmic reticulum = Post-translational protein processing Cytoskeleton = Cellular scaffolding and motor functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their outcomes:

    <p>Apoptosis = Programmed cell death Autophagy = Cellular self-eating Necrosis = Unprogrammed cell death Protein synthesis = Production of new proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their functions:

    <p>Superoxide dismutase = Conversion of superoxide to hydrogen peroxide Telomerase = Repair of DNA damage Enzymes in mitochondria = Reduction of oxygen to water Sensors in ER membrane = Detection of misfolded proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their triggers:

    <p>Unfolded protein response = Accumulation of misfolded proteins Autophagy = Nutrient deficiency Apoptosis = DNA damage Cellular injury and death = Injurious stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular structures with their roles in protein processing:

    <p>Mitochondria = Protein synthesis Endoplasmic reticulum = Post-translational protein processing Lysosomes = Protein degradation Cytoskeleton = Protein transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their effects on cellular components:

    <p>Autophagy = Degradation of damaged cellular components Apoptosis = Death of entire cell Necrosis = Uncontrolled cell death Protein synthesis = Production of new cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their consequences:

    <p>Impaired autophagy = Accumulation of damaged cellular components Defective DNA repair = Mutation accumulation Altered transcription = Changes in gene expression Inhibited protein synthesis = Reduced cellular growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions:

    <p>Cytoskeleton = Provides scaffolding and motor functions for cells Lysosomes = Involved in protein synthesis Endoplasmic Reticulum = Involved in post-translational protein processing Autophagy = Process of cellular self-eating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their descriptions:

    <p>Cellular swelling = Result of influx of Ca and efflux of K Loss of microvilli = Damage to cellular membranes Blebs = Formation of balloon-like structures on the cell surface ER swelling = Consequence of protein misfolding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their consequences:

    <p>Apoptosis = Programmed cell death Autophagy = Cellular self-eating Necrosis = Unprogrammed cell death DNA damage = Mutations and altered transcription</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their roles in cellular injury:

    <p>Lysosomes = Involved in protein degradation Mitochondria = Primary source of energy for cellular functions Endoplasmic Reticulum = Involved in post-translational protein processing DNA = Stores genetic information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions:

    <p>Mitochondria = Generate energy for the cell Lysosomes = Involved in protein degradation Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) = Involved in protein synthesis and folding Microvilli = Increase the surface area of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their triggers:

    <p>Apoptosis = DNA damage and cellular stress Autophagy = Nutrient deprivation and cellular stress DNA repair = DNA damage Unfolded protein response = Misfolded proteins in the ER</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their outcomes:

    <p>Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury = Restoration of blood flow to an ischemic tissue with increased ROS production Autophagy = Recycling of damaged cellular components Necrosis = Unprogrammed cell death Glycogen synthesis = Storage of glucose in the liver and muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their triggers:

    <p>Influx of Ca = Damage to cellular membranes Efflux of K = Increased production of ROS ER stress = Accumulation of misfolded proteins Cellular swelling = Decreased blood flow to the tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following reactive oxygen species with their effects:

    <p>Superoxide = Can cause cellular damage Hydrogen peroxide = Can cause cellular damage ROS = Can cause DNA damage and mutations Oxygen = Essential for cellular respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their functions in protein synthesis:

    <p>Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) = Involved in protein folding and modification Lysosomes = Involved in protein degradation Mitochondria = Generate energy for protein synthesis Golgi apparatus = Modifies and packages proteins for secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their results:

    <p>Mutations = Abnormal protein production DNA damage = Altered transcription and cellular injury Autophagy = Recycling of cellular components Apoptosis = Cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their consequences:

    <p>Increased ROS production = Cellular damage and injury Protein misfolding = ER stress and unfolded protein response Cellular swelling = Decreased cellular function Autophagy = Recycling of damaged cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Glycogen synthesis = Storage of glucose in the liver and muscles Lactic acid synthesis = Energy production in the absence of oxygen Protein synthesis = Production of new proteins in the cell Autophagy = Recycling of damaged cellular components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their roles in cellular injury:

    <p>Lysosomes = Involved in protein degradation and removal of damaged cellular components Mitochondria = Generate energy for the cell, but can also produce ROS Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) = Involved in protein synthesis and folding, and can be damaged by misfolded proteins Cell membrane = Regulates the flow of molecules into and out of the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Autophagy

    • Autophagy is a form of "self-eating" (Greek, phaga = to eat) where cells digest their own organelles and recycle them to provide energy for survival.
    • In H&E-stained sections, the nucleus appears materlike to provide energy for survival.

    Autophagy vs. Necrosis

    • Autophagy differs from necrosis in that cells survive by recycling their own organelles.
    • In necrosis, cells die due to irreversible damage.
    • In H&E-stained sections, autophagic cells appear with shrunken, pyknotic nuclei, and vacuoles containing cellular debris.

    Cellular Components and Damage

    • Other cellular components that suffer damage upon exposure to various injurious agents include:
      • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) involved in protein synthesis and post-translational processing
      • Cytoskeleton providing structural support and motor functions
      • Mitochondria responsible for energy production
      • Cellular membranes vulnerable to leakage and damage

    Mechanisms of Cell Injury and Death

    • Hypoxia/ischemia, radiation, and other injurious agents can cause cell injury and death.
    • Mitochondrial damage leads to reduced ATP production, increased ROS, and activation of caspases, ultimately resulting in apoptosis.
    • DNA damage triggers apoptosis, while mutations can lead to cellular aging and death.
    • ER stress triggers an unfolded protein response, which can protect the cell from misfolded proteins or induce apoptosis if the damage is irreversible.

    Cell Death Pathways

    • Necrosis: irreversible cell damage and death
    • Apoptosis: programmed cell death in response to internal or external signals
    • Autophagy: self-eating and recycling of cellular components to provide energy for survival

    Mechanisms of Cell Injury and Death

    • Irreparable DNA damage can occur due to exposure to various injurious agents, leading to cellular injury and death.
    • Other cellular components, such as the ER and cytoskeleton, can also suffer damage upon exposure to injurious agents.

    Cellular Components Prone to Damage

    • Mitochondria, membranes, and the nucleus are essential cellular components that can be damaged, leading to cellular injury and death.
    • The degree of injury from any stimulus varies depending on the degree of abnormality in one or more of these essential cellular components.

    Mechanisms of DNA Damage

    • Superoxide, a reactive oxygen species, can be converted to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) spontaneously or by the action of the enzyme superoxide dismutase.
    • Hydrogen peroxide can be converted to a highly reactive compound, hypochlorous acid, by the enzyme myeloperoxidase present in leukocyte granules.
    • This reactive compound can cause DNA damage and disrupt cellular function.

    Consequences of Cellular Damage

    • Decreased cell replication due to progressive loss of cellular function can lead to tissue damage and organ injury.
    • Abnormalities in cellular components can lead to increased production of misfolded proteins, which can accumulate and cause cellular damage.
    • Decreased telomerase activity, which maintains telomere length, can lead to cellular senescence and aging.

    Aging and Cellular Damage

    • DNA damage, replicative senescence, and decreased and misfolded proteins are among the best-described mechanisms of cellular aging.
    • Environmental stresses, such as calorie restriction, can counteract aging by activating various signaling pathways and transcription factors.
    • Cellular aging can lead to tissue damage and organ injury, and can also increase the risk of age-related diseases.

    Apoptotic Cells and Free Radicals

    • Apoptotic cells in the colonic epithelium are shown, which are induced by the preparative regimen for colonoscopy.
    • Free radicals are highly reactive molecules that can cause apoptosis in epithelial cells.
    • Apoptotic cells are characterized by fragmented nuclei, condensed chromatin, and shrunken cell bodies.

    Free Radicals and ROS

    • ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) are produced normally in small amounts in cells during redox reactions.
    • ROS are highly reactive molecules that can cause oxidative damage to cellular components.
    • ROS include oxygen radicals, such as superoxides, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide.

    Mitochondria and ROS

    • Mitochondria are the sites where ATP is produced, and ROS are produced as a byproduct.
    • ROS can damage mitochondrial components, leading to the production of more ROS.
    • Mitochondrial dysfunction can lead to the release of ROS, which can cause apoptosis.

    Cellular Targets of Injurious Stimuli

    • Most injurious stimuli affect mitochondria, cellular membranes, or nuclear DNA.
    • Injury to these structures can progress to necrosis or apoptosis.
    • ATP, adenosine triphosphate, is a key player in cellular energy metabolism.

    ROS and Cellular Damage

    • ROS can damage lipids, proteins, and DNA, leading to cellular damage.
    • Peroxidation of lipids, oxidation of proteins, and breaks in DNA can occur due to ROS.
    • ROS can also affect cellular components, such as enzymes, and lead to the accumulation of damaged proteins.

    DNA Damage and Repair

    • Damaged DNA can activate p53, which arrests the cell cycle in the G1 phase to allow for DNA repair.
    • DNA repair mechanisms can correct DNA damage, but if the damage is severe, p53 can trigger apoptosis.
    • The accumulation of DNA damage can lead to the activation of DNA repair mechanisms, which can prevent further damage.

    Cellular Response to Damage

    • Cells can respond to damage by activating repair mechanisms or undergoing apoptosis.
    • The choice between repair and apoptosis depends on the severity of the damage and the cellular context.
    • Apoptosis is a mechanism to eliminate damaged cells, which can prevent further damage to the organism.

    Ischemia and Oxidative Stress

    • Ischemia leads to oxygen deprivation, which increases oxidative stress and ROS production.
    • This causes damage to cellular components, including the plasma membrane, and disrupts ATP-dependent Na-K pumps.

    Cellular Effects

    • Reduced cellular activity and ATP production occur due to oxidative stress.
    • Decreased ATP production damages many cellular components, leading to:
      • Reduced activity of the plasma membrane ATP-dependent Na-K pump.
      • Influx of Na and water, causing cell swelling and damage.
      • Disruption of ER function, leading to protein misfolding and aggregation.

    Genetic Effects

    • Oxidative stress and DNA damage lead to:
      • Mutations in DNA replication.
      • Defective DNA repair.
      • Altered gene transcription.

    Cellular Aging

    • Decreased cellular function and increased DNA damage contribute to cellular aging.
    • Counteracting cellular aging requires maintaining protein homeostasis and promoting DNA repair.

    Hyperplasia

    • Hyperplasia can be physiological or pathological and is induced by growth factors.
    • It can lead to increased cell proliferation and protein synthesis.
    • Examples of hyperplasia include:
      • Insulin/IGF signaling pathway.
      • TOR pathway.
      • Hormone-induced hyperplasia.

    Pathological Consequences

    • Hyperplasia can lead to various diseases, including:
      • Atherosclerosis.
      • Type 2 diabetes.
      • Cancer.
    • It can also cause chronic inflammation and tissue damage.

    Compensatory Mechanisms

    • Compensatory mechanisms, such as hyperplasia, can occur in response to tissue damage or stress.
    • Examples include:
      • Compensatory hyperplasia in response to hormonal changes.
      • Compensatory hyperplasia in response to mechanical stress.

    Cellular Damage and Necrosis

    • Damage to cell membranes can lead to the release of enzymes, causing cell injury and necrosis
    • ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) can damage cell membranes, leading to cell injury and necrosis
    • Plasma membrane damage can result in cell death, leading to necrosis

    Nuclear Damage

    • Nuclear DNA is damaged, disrupting transcription-dependent cellular functions (e.g., protein synthesis)
    • Nuclear damage can disrupt gene expression, leading to cell injury and death

    ROS Production

    • ROS are produced normally in small amounts during cellular respiration and metabolism
    • ROS can trigger apoptosis (cell death) by damaging mitochondria
    • Increased ROS production can contribute to coronary artery disease and stroke

    Cellular Response to Injury

    • Hypoxia and ischemia can lead to reduced ATP production, causing energy-dependent cellular systems to fail
    • Cellular swelling, loss of microvilli, and bleb formation can occur in response to injury
    • ER swelling and increased ROS production can exacerbate tissue injury

    Consequences of Cellular Injury

    • Accumulation of mutations in DNA can occur naturally and can be enhanced by ROS and environmental mutagens
    • Influx of calcium and sodium ions can contribute to cellular injury and death
    • Efflux of potassium ions can lead to cellular injury and death

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