Attributional Styles and FAE Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What are the differences between internal and external attribution?

Internal attribution focuses on personality traits, while external attribution considers situational or environmental factors.

How does the theory of attribution use consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency to explain behavior?

Consensus assesses if others behave similarly, distinctiveness examines if the actor behaves differently across situations, and consistency checks if the actor shows the same behavior repeatedly.

Explain how high consensus and low consensus affect attribution.

High consensus indicates an external attribution as many others behave similarly, while low consensus suggests an internal attribution since the behavior is unique to the individual.

What is the fundamental attribution error (FAE) and why is it significant?

<p>The FAE is the tendency to underestimate situational influences and overestimate personality traits when evaluating others' behaviors, highlighting a bias in our judgment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does an individual with high distinctiveness in their behavior typically lead to external attribution?

<p>High distinctiveness suggests that the actor's behavior is specific to the situation, leading to an external attribution as the behavior is seen as a response to their environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary influence driving individuals to conform in a group setting?

<p>Normative influence, where individuals desire to gain social approval and avoid rejection, is the primary driver.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does status affect conformity within groups?

<p>Lower-status individuals are more likely to conform to higher-status individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does public response have on conformity?

<p>Conformity increases when responses are visible to the public and decreases when they are private.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the foot-in-the-door technique for gaining compliance.

<p>The foot-in-the-door technique involves making a small request first, which is followed by a larger request.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of cultural influences in conformity?

<p>Cultural influences such as collectivistic cultures tend to promote higher conformity compared to individualistic cultures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of credibility in persuasion.

<p>Credibility affects persuasion through perceived expertise and trustworthiness of the speaker.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central route to persuasion?

<p>The central route to persuasion involves deep thinking and careful consideration of arguments presented.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the door-in-the-face technique work?

<p>This technique starts with a large request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller request.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of fear in persuasive messaging?

<p>Fear can make individuals more responsive to messages, but it may also lead them to engage in denial.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What psychological effect can positive feelings have on persuasion?

<p>Positive feelings enhance positive thinking, which increases the effectiveness of persuasion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does discrepancy and disagreement affect behavior change?

<p>Discrepancy creates discomfort, leading individuals to change their behaviors or opinions, particularly when the message is from a credible source.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by reactance in the context of social pressure?

<p>Reactance refers to the rebellion against social pressures that threaten autonomy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between one-sided and two-sided arguments?

<p>One-sided arguments are more effective when the audience already agrees, while two-sided arguments are better for those aware of opposing viewpoints.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the primary and recency effects in persuasion.

<p>The primary effect means information presented first is often more persuasive, while the recency effect indicates the last presented information can be more persuasive sometimes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between the central and peripheral routes to persuasion?

<p>The central route involves deep processing of information, while the peripheral route relies on superficial cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of repetitive messaging on persuasion?

<p>Repetitive messages tend to be more persuasive and believable, even if they contain false information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What tactic involves presenting an attractive offer first and then increasing the cost?

<p>The lowball procedure starts with an appealing offer, then changes to a less attractive one after agreement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the impact of audience initial attitudes on persuasion effectiveness.

<p>If initial attitudes are formed through emotion, the audience is more likely to be swayed by peripheral cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of opinion leaders in the two-step flow of communication?

<p>Opinion leaders receive media messages and transmit this information to the final audience, influencing public opinion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of similarity in gaining compliance?

<p>People are more likely to respond positively to requests from communicators who are similar to them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does self-esteem impact susceptibility to persuasion?

<p>Medium self-esteem individuals are more vulnerable to persuasion, while low self-esteem individuals may have comprehension issues and high self-esteem individuals are harder to persuade.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe how physical proximity influences friendships.

<p>Physical proximity leads to repeated exposure and interaction, which enhances liking due to the mere exposure effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the contrast effect in attraction?

<p>The contrast effect occurs when individuals exposed to high levels of physical attractiveness perceive average attractiveness as less appealing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of similarity influence relationships?

<p>Similarity fosters connections and liking, while dissimilarity often leads to dislike.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is attitude inoculation?

<p>Attitude inoculation strengthens existing beliefs by exposing individuals to counterarguments before they encounter persuasive messages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers hostile aggression according to psychological theories?

<p>Hostile aggression is driven by anger and can be influenced by factors like frustration, pain, and environmental cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact does media have on aggression?

<p>Media influences, such as violent video games and pornography, can increase aggressive behavior, especially towards women.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the observer difference in attribution theory?

<p>The observer difference refers to how we focus on external attributions when we act, but on internal attributions when we observe others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the role of self-awareness in understanding our attitudes.

<p>Self-awareness directs our attention towards our own thoughts and feelings, making us more sensitive to our attitudes and dispositions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the key components of Sternberg’s conception of love?

<p>Sternberg identifies passion, intimacy, and commitment as the core components of love.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural influence affect attribution styles?

<p>Individualistic cultures encourage internal attributions, while collectivistic cultures promote external attributions focused on situational factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the misinformation effect in memory recall?

<p>The misinformation effect occurs when false information is incorporated into our memory, altering our recollection of events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the overconfidence phenomenon.

<p>The overconfidence phenomenon is the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is cognitive dissonance and how does it manifest?

<p>Cognitive dissonance is the mental discomfort arising from holding conflicting beliefs, values, or behaviors, which often leads individuals to change their beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the principle of aggregation in attitude measurement.

<p>The principle of aggregation states that attitudes are better assessed by observing an individual's average behavior across various situations rather than specific behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the Stanford experiment in demonstrating role-playing?

<p>The Stanford experiment showcased how participants adapted their behaviors and attitudes to fit assigned roles, highlighting the power of situational influences on behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define conformity and its primary characteristics.

<p>Conformity is the change in behavior or belief to align with group norms and expectations, often occurring in social contexts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factors contribute to increased obedience in individuals?

<p>Factors such as dehumanization, the legitimacy of authority, and institutional authority enhance obedience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Summarize the key findings of Asch's line experiment.

<p>Asch's line experiment demonstrated that individuals often conform to group judgments even when they are clearly incorrect, especially in public settings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the concept of self-fulfilling prophecy.

<p>A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a belief or expectation leads to behaviors that confirm that belief, influencing outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the 'rosy retrospection' phenomenon.

<p>Rosy retrospection is the tendency to remember past events more favorably than they actually occurred, often romanticizing our memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does impression management play in behavior and attitude alignment?

<p>Impression management involves altering one's behavior or presentation to gain social validation and approval, potentially leading to attitude changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the fundamental attribution error affect our judgment of others' actions?

<p>The fundamental attribution error causes us to overestimate the role of personality traits and underestimate situational influences when judging others' behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario would low distinctiveness in an individual's behavior lead to an internal attribution?

<p>Low distinctiveness occurs when an individual behaves similarly across different situations, leading observers to attribute their actions to internal traits rather than external factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What implications does high consensus have for making external attributions in a group context?

<p>High consensus indicates that many individuals behave similarly in a given situation, leading observers to infer that the behavior is influenced more by the environment than by personal traits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the theory of attribution utilizes consistency to identify internal or external factors in behavior.

<p>If an individual consistently exhibits a specific behavior across different situations, it suggests an internal attribution; conversely, if the behavior varies, it suggests external factors are at play.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can understanding attributional styles enhance interpersonal communication?

<p>Recognizing whether someone attributes their behavior to internal or external factors can improve empathy and reduce misunderstandings in interactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of active experience based attitude differ from passive reception?

<p>Active experience based attitude involves direct engagement and personal involvement, whereas passive reception is formed through mere exposure to information without active participation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect do one-sided arguments have on audience attitudes if they are generally in agreement?

<p>One-sided arguments are most effective with an audience that is already in agreement, as they reinforce existing beliefs without presenting opposing views.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of frustration in the frustration-aggression theory?

<p>Frustration triggers a readiness to aggression, leading individuals to act out when their goals are thwarted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do credible messages impact people's resistance to discrepant views?

<p>High credible messages make it difficult for individuals to maintain their discrepant opinions, often leading to behavior or opinion change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mere exposure effect in the context of attraction?

<p>The mere exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to individuals increases liking, as familiarity breeds positive feelings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of attitude inoculation in strengthening personal beliefs?

<p>Attitude inoculation strengthens existing beliefs by exposing individuals to counterarguments before they encounter persuasive messages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can making a public commitment help resist persuasion?

<p>Making a public commitment can strengthen an individual's resolve, making them less vulnerable to opposing persuasive messages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of aggression, what role does media influence play?

<p>Media influence can increase aggression, particularly through depictions of violence, leading audiences to adopt similar behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of pain as a trigger for aggression?

<p>Pain can trigger aggressive responses, as individuals may lash out when they are experiencing discomfort or hurt.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does age correlate with social and political attitudes according to the content?

<p>Social and political attitudes often shift as individuals age, with younger people generally being more liberal and older individuals leaning towards conservatism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of cognitive dissonance using an example.

<p>Cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual's beliefs conflict with their actions, such as a person who values health but smokes cigarettes, creating mental discomfort.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might individuals with low self-esteem be more susceptible to persuasion?

<p>Individuals with low self-esteem may struggle to comprehend messages fully, making them more vulnerable to persuasive attempts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the two-step flow of communication in relation to opinion leaders?

<p>The two-step flow of communication describes how media influences opinion leaders, who then relay information to the final audience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy operate?

<p>A self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when a person's belief about another individual leads them to act in ways that confirm that belief, thus influencing the behavior of the other person.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the contrast effect influence perceptions of physical attractiveness?

<p>The contrast effect suggests that individuals' perceptions of attractiveness are influenced by exposure to others, often leading to decreased evaluations of average-looking individuals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of priming in memory recall?

<p>Priming involves presenting a stimulus that triggers associations in memory, making related concepts more accessible in recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the recency effect have on persuasive messages?

<p>The recency effect indicates that information presented later can be more persuasive, sometimes overshadowing earlier messages.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the difference between conformity and obedience.

<p>Conformity is changing behavior or beliefs to match group norms, while obedience is following direct commands from an authority figure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of group influences in increasing aggression?

<p>Group influences can elevate aggression, as individuals may feel emboldened in numbers, leading to social contagion of aggressive behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the principle of aggregation in understanding attitudes?

<p>The principle of aggregation states that one should assess an individual’s attitude based on their average behavior across various situations rather than a single observation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define the term 'rosy retrospection' in the context of memory.

<p>Rosy retrospection is the tendency to recall past experiences more positively than they were actually experienced.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can cultural influences impact attribution styles?

<p>Cultural factors, such as individualism and collectivism, shape whether people make internal attributions (personal traits) or external attributions (situational factors) for behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the misinformation effect and how does it impact memory?

<p>The misinformation effect occurs when post-event information distorts a person's memory of the original event.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factors may lead to increased conformity in group settings?

<p>Increased conformity can result from group size (typically 3-5 people), the desire for social acceptance, or group cohesiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Give an example of self-justification and its psychological impact.

<p>Self-justification occurs when individuals rationalize contradictory behaviors to alleviate feelings of guilt or discomfort, such as a health-conscious person justifying occasional junk food consumption.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how the overconfidence phenomenon can affect decision-making.

<p>The overconfidence phenomenon leads individuals to overestimate the accuracy of their beliefs or judgments, often resulting in poor decision-making.</p> Signup and view all the answers

State how impression management influences behavior.

<p>Impression management involves altering one’s behavior to gain social acceptance or validation from others, which can result in changes to attitudes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does self-perception play in attitude formation?

<p>Self-perception theory suggests that individuals form attitudes based on observing their own behaviors and the contexts in which they occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Discuss the term 'behavioral confirmation' and its implications.

<p>Behavioral confirmation occurs when a person’s expectations about another lead them to act in ways that elicit behaviors confirming those expectations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Identify the significance of the Milgram experiment in studying obedience.

<p>The Milgram experiment demonstrated the extent to which individuals would comply with authority figures, even against their moral beliefs, highlighting the power of situational factors in obedience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by normative influence in the context of conformity?

<p>Normative influence refers to the pressure individuals feel to conform in order to gain social approval and avoid rejection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the lowball procedure work in gaining compliance?

<p>The lowball procedure involves initially making an attractive offer, then raising the cost after a person has already agreed to it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does cohesion play in conformity?

<p>High cohesion within a group leads to stronger conformity as members feel a greater sense of belonging and pressure to align with group norms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might individuals conform more when their responses are visible to others?

<p>Visibility of responses increases the fear of social rejection, prompting individuals to conform to perceived social expectations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the foot-in-the-door technique and how does it function?

<p>The foot-in-the-door technique involves making a small initial request followed by a larger request, capitalizing on the principle of consistency.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe how cultural influences can affect conformity.

<p>Cultural influences, such as those from collectivistic cultures, promote conformity as individuals prioritize group harmony over personal preferences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between status and conformity?

<p>Lower-status individuals are more likely to conform to higher-status individuals due to perceived authority and influence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'reactance' mean in the context of social pressure?

<p>Reactance is the tendency of individuals to resist social pressure and assert their autonomy when they feel their freedoms are threatened.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between the central and peripheral routes to persuasion.

<p>The central route involves deep cognitive processing of a message's content, while the peripheral route relies on superficial cues and less engagement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the door-in-the-face technique and how is it employed?

<p>The door-in-the-face technique involves starting with a large request that is likely to be refused, then following up with a smaller, more reasonable request.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does clever use of fear in persuasion influence behavior?

<p>Fear-inducing messages prompt individuals to consider the consequences of their actions, increasing the likelihood of behavior change.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of attractiveness in a communicator when attempting to persuade?

<p>Attractiveness can enhance a communicator's persuasiveness, as it can appeal to the audience's emotions and increase their attention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What impact do good feelings have on the process of persuasion?

<p>Good feelings create a positive mindset that can enhance receptiveness to persuasive messages, making attitude changes more likely.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is public commitment important in the context of conformity?

<p>Public commitment can make individuals hesitant to withdraw from their original stance due to the fear of social embarrassment or rejection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the notion of playing hard to get as a compliance tactic.

<p>Playing hard to get creates a sense of scarcity that can make individuals desire the object or person more, increasing compliance rates.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Attribution Style

Explaining behavior by attributing it to either internal factors (personality) or external factors (situation).

Theory of Attribution

A framework for understanding how people infer causes of behavior, using consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

Tendency to overestimate personality traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

High Consensus

A high consensus indicates that others are also behaving similarly in that situation. Suggests an external attribution.

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Low Distinctiveness

If someone consistently behaves a certain way across different situations, it suggests an internal attribution.

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Unanimity

Everyone in a group agrees on the same opinion or decision.

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Cohesion

The degree to which group members feel connected and attracted to each other.

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Status

Social standing or rank within a group, influencing conformity.

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Public Response

Conformity is more likely when others can see your actions or opinions.

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Prior Commitment

Having made a public statement or commitment makes it harder to change your mind.

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Normative Influence

Conforming because we want to fit in and avoid social disapproval.

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Informational Influence

Conforming because we believe others have more information or expertise.

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Personality & Conformity

Individual personality traits can influence the likelihood of conforming.

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Cultural Influence

Different cultures have varying norms and expectations regarding conformity.

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Compliance

When someone acts in accordance with a request, even if they don't fully agree.

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Ingratiation

Trying to gain favor or approval from someone to increase compliance.

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Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Getting someone to agree to a small request first to increase their likelihood of agreeing to a larger one.

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Lowball Procedure

Making an attractive offer initially, then changing it to something less attractive.

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Door-in-the-Face Technique

Asking for a large request that will be refused, then asking for a smaller, more reasonable request.

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Playing Hard to Get

Making yourself or something seem scarce and desirable to increase compliance.

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Observer Bias

When observing others, we tend to attribute their actions to internal factors (personality) rather than external factors (situations).

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Self-Awareness

Focusing on ourselves makes us more aware of our own attitudes and dispositions.

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Preconceptions

Preexisting beliefs influence how we interpret social information.

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Belief Perseverance

The tendency to cling to beliefs even when faced with contradictory evidence.

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Memory Construction

Memories are not exact recordings of the past; they are actively constructed and reconstructed.

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Rosy Retrospection

Recalling happy memories more favorably than they were experienced.

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Misinformation Effect

Incorporating misleading information into one's memories.

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Priming

A stimulus that triggers related associations in memory.

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Implicit Attitudes

Unconscious attitudes that predict behaviors and judgments.

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Principle of Aggregation

Attitudes predict behavior better when considering an average of actions across various situations, not just one.

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Role-Playing

Behaving in a specific social role, which can influence your actual attitudes.

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Cognitive Dissonance

Discomfort from inconsistent thoughts, beliefs, or behaviors.

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Insufficient Justification

When a reward is not sufficient to justify an action, a person may change their attitude to reduce dissonance.

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Conformity

Adjusting behavior or beliefs to match group norms.

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Discrepancy and Discomfort

When people encounter information contradicting their beliefs, they experience discomfort, leading to potential changes in behavior or opinions.

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Credibility and Discrepancy

High-credibility sources deliver messages that challenge opinions are harder to dismiss, potentially leading to greater dissonance and a shift in views.

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Involvement and Resistance

People deeply involved in a topic are more resistant to opposing viewpoints than those with less immersion.

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One-Sided Arguments

One-sided arguments are most effective when the audience already agrees with the message and reinforces existing beliefs.

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Two-Sided Arguments

Two-sided arguments, considering both sides, are more effective for audiences who are aware of opposing viewpoints as they show a balanced perspective.

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Primary Effect

Information presented first is more persuasive as it shapes listeners' interpretations of subsequent information.

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Recency Effect

Sometimes, information presented last can be more persuasive, especially when audiences have forgotten earlier information.

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Active vs. Passive Reception

Active reception involves direct engagement and personal involvement with information, while passive reception involves exposure without conscious effort.

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Repetition and Believability

Repetition can increase the believability of messages, even if false, as it reinforces the information.

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Two-Step Flow of Communication

Media influence is often indirectly spread through opinion leaders who then transmit the information to the wider audience.

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Message Difficulty and Medium

Easy messages are more persuasive when presented visually, while difficult messages are more persuasive in written form.

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Self-Esteem and Persuasion

People with moderate self-esteem are more vulnerable to persuasion, while those with low self-esteem struggle with comprehension and those with high self-esteem are confident and resistant.

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Age and Attitudes

Social and political attitudes often shift with age, particularly in late adulthood, with a shift towards conservatism compared to younger generations.

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Counterarguing and Persuasion

People who are prepared to counterargue with opposing viewpoints are less vulnerable to persuasion.

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Attitude Inoculation

Strengthening existing attitudes by exposing individuals to counterarguments before they encounter persuasive messages.

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Public Commitment and Resistance

Making a public commitment to a belief makes individuals more resistant to persuasion.

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Internal Attribution

Explaining behavior based on a person's personality traits, like their skills, beliefs, or motivations.

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External Attribution

Explaining behavior based on the situation or environment, such as the task difficulty, social pressure, or external circumstances.

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Consensus (Attribution Theory)

Do others behave the same way in the same situation? High consensus suggests an external attribution.

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Consistency (Attribution Theory)

Does the person always behave this way in similar situations? High consistency suggests an internal attribution.

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Observer Difference

The tendency to attribute our own actions to external factors (situation) and others' actions to internal factors (personality).

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Change of Perspective

Shifting from our own perspective to another's can influence how we attribute their behavior.

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Overconfidence Phenomenon

Overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs.

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Confirmation Bias

Seeking out information that confirms our existing beliefs.

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Our beliefs and expectations influence our actions, which in turn influence the behavior of others, confirming our initial beliefs.

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Behavioral Confirmation

When our expectations about others' behavior lead them to actually behave in line with those expectations.

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Status and Conformity

People with lower status are more likely to conform to the opinions and behaviors of those with higher status.

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Public Response & Conformity

Conformity increases when our actions or opinions are visible to others.

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Deadline Technique

Creating a sense of urgency by establishing a limited time to take advantage of an offer.

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Reactance

Resisting social pressure when our sense of autonomy is threatened.

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Study Notes

Attributional Styles

  • Attributional styles involve internal attributions (factors like personality traits) and external attributions (factors like scenario or environmental factors).
  • Theory of attribution examines consensus (do others do the same?), distinctiveness (does the actor behave the same way towards others?), and consistency (does the actor always behave the same way across situations?).
    • High consensus = external attribution
    • Low consensus = internal attribution
    • High consistency = internal attribution
    • Low consistency = external attribution
    • High distinctiveness = external attribution
    • Low distinctiveness = internal attribution

Inferring Traits

  • People often infer traits from behaviors.

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

  • FAE is the tendency to overestimate the influence of internal factors (personality) and underestimate the influence of external factors (situational factors) when explaining others' behaviors.
  • Reasons for FAE:
    • Observer differences: Observers focus on the actor, while actors focus on the situation.
    • Change of perspective: Difficulty in understanding others' perspectives.
    • Self-awareness: Self-focus makes individuals more sensitive to their own attitudes.
    • Cultural influence: Individualistic cultures emphasize internal attributions more than collectivistic cultures.

Preconceptions

  • Preconceptions (preexisting beliefs) can affect interpretation of social information.
  • These beliefs are often automatic, unaware, and resistant to change.
  • Attempts to explain contrary theories can address the impact of belief perseverance.

Memory Construction

  • Memories are constructed after events occur and are affected by current feelings and expectations.
  • Distant past memories are constructed by incorporating current feelings and expectations.

Rosy Retrospection

  • Rosy retrospection is recalling happy memories more favorably than originally experienced. This is a form of romanticizing.

Misinformation Effect

  • Incorporating false information into memories.

Priming

  • Priming is where a stimulus triggers related associations in memory. Positive words can lead to positive memory recall.

Unconscious Mind

  • The unconscious mind influences behaviors.

Overconfidence Phenomenon

  • Overestimating the accuracy of one's beliefs.

Confirmation Bias

  • Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

  • Beliefs can influence actions, leading others to behave in ways that confirm the belief.

Implicit Attitudes

  • Implicit attitudes predict behaviors and judgments

Attitudes Predicting Behavior

  • Attitudes predict behavior when considering aggregated (average) behavior across different situations.
  • Specific behaviors cannot determine a person's overall attitude.

Behavior Affecting Attitudes

  • Role-playing can influence attitudes (e.g., Stanford prison experiment).
  • Saying becomes believing: Expressing attitudes can lead to their internalization.
  • Evil acts and attitudes engaging in harmful behavior can lead to a shift in beliefs.

Reasons for Behavior Affecting Attitudes

  • Impression management: Gaining social validation or approval.
  • Self-justification: Reducing discomfort from inconsistent beliefs or behaviors.
  • Cognitive dissonance: Uncomfortable mental state from conflicting beliefs or behaviors.
    • Insufficient justification: Lack of sufficient reasons for behavior may cause dissonance.

Cognitive Dissonance

  • The state of discomfort caused by conflicting beliefs, values, or behaviors.
  • Insufficient justification: Lack of sufficient reason for a behavior can lead to cognitive dissonance.
    • Festinger and Carlsmith (1959) study.

Self-Perception

  • Observing one's own consistent behaviors to determine attitudes.

Conformity

  • Changing beliefs or behaviors to align with group norms.

Compliance

  • Following rules or laws for rewards or avoiding punishment.

Obedience

  • Submission to authority figures' instructions, even unethical ones.

Acceptance

  • Acknowledging and recognizing others' behaviors and beliefs.

Conformity and Obedience Experiments

  • Autokinetic effect: Participants conform to a perceived group norm.
  • Asch's line experiment: Individuals conform to incorrect group judgments.
  • Milgram's obedience experiment: Participants obey harmful authority instructions.

Factors Influencing Obedience

  • Dehumanization/moral disengagement: Emotional distance from the victim.
  • Legitimacy of authority: Authority sources like uniforms induce obedience.
  • Institutional authority: Institutions (government, military) increase obedience

Factors Influencing Conformity

  • Group size: Conformity increases with group size (up to a point).
  • Unanimity: Conformity decreases when group opinion is not unanimous.
  • Cohesion: High cohesiveness increases conformity.
  • Status: Lower-status individuals conform to higher-status individuals.
  • Public response: Public responses increase conformity.
  • Prior commitment: Having made a public commitment decreases conformity.

Reasons for Conformity

  • Normative influence: Seeking social approval or avoiding rejection.
  • Informational influence: Using others' behaviors as evidence.

Who Conforms?

  • Personality
  • Cultural influences

Compliance Tactics

  • Ingratiation: Gaining favor through flattery, self-promotion.
  • Foot-in-the-door: Starting with a small request, then a larger one.
  • Low-ball: Making an attractive offer, then increasing the cost.
  • Door-in-the-face: Starting with a large request, then a smaller one.
  • Playing hard to get: Making oneself seem scarce.
  • Deadline: Creating urgency.

Resisting Social Pressure

  • Reactance: Resisting perceived threats to autonomy.
  • Asserting uniqueness.

Persuasion

  • Persuasion is influencing beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.

Central Route to Persuasion

  • Involves critical thinking about arguments.
  • High involvement, focus on arguments, stable attitude change

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

  • Relies on incidental cues.
  • Low involvement, focus on incidental cues, less stable attitude change

Persuasion Factors (The Communicator)

  • Credibility: Expertise and trustworthiness. Sleeper effect: Credibility fades, message remains.
  • Attractiveness and liking: Appealing communicators increase persuasion.

Persuasion Factors (The Message)

  • Reason vs. emotion: Reason appeals for educated audiences, emotion for uninvolved audiences.
  • Good feelings: Positive feelings enhance persuasion.
  • Fear: Fear appeals can be effective but can lead to denial.
  • Discrepancy: Moderate disagreement is more persuasive than large disagreement.
  • One-sided vs. two-sided arguments: One-sided may work if audience agrees; two-sided is better for aware audiences.
  • Order of presentation: Primary effect (early info most persuasive); Recency effect (late info most persuasive).

Persuasion Factors (Audience)

  • Active experience-based attitudes vs passive reception. Repetition increases believability.

Two-Step Flow of Communication

  • Media influences opinion leaders who influence others.

Aggression

  • Hostile aggression: Anger-driven aggression.
  • Instrumental aggression: Aggression to achieve a goal.
  • Factors influencing aggression:
    • Genetic influences
    • Biochemical influences (e.g., alcohol)
    • Frustration-aggression theory: Frustration triggers aggression. Revised versions: frustration doesn't always lead to aggression.
    • Relative deprivation: Inequality can trigger anger and aggression.
    • Observational learning: Aggression learned through observation. Bobo doll experiment.
    • Pain, heat, attacks, arousal, aversive cues, media influences, group influences.

Attraction and Friendship

  • Proximity: Repeated exposure increases liking. Mere exposure effect.
  • Physical attractiveness: More attractive people are perceived as more desirable. Contrast effect.
  • Similarity: Similarity in attitudes increases attraction.
  • Relationship rewards: Relationships provide positive benefits.
  • Reciprocal liking: Liking those who like us.

Love

  • Sternberg's (1988) conception of love: passion, intimacy, commitment.
  • Passionate love: Two-factor theory of emotion applies (arousal + label = emotion).

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Explore the intricacies of attributional styles, including internal and external attributions, as well as the fundamental attribution error. This quiz examines factors influencing how we interpret behaviors and traits in ourselves and others. Test your knowledge on key theories and concepts in psychology related to attribution.

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