Attitudes in Social Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What phenomenon describes the improvement of performance on well-learned tasks in the presence of others?

Social Facilitation (correct)

Social Inhibition

Distraction-Conflict

Evaluation Apprehension

Which theory suggests that the presence of an audience increases arousal, leading to the dominant response?

Evaluation Apprehension Theory

Drive/Arousal Theory (correct)

Distraction-Conflict Theory

Social Learning Theory

According to the Evaluation Apprehension Theory, what primarily causes arousal when performing in front of an audience?

The task difficulty

Concern about being evaluated (correct)

Competition levels

Social preferences

In the cockroach study conducted by Zajonc, Heingartner, and Herman, what was the outcome when the cockroaches faced an easy maze versus a hard maze?

Faster in the easy maze, slower in the hard maze Signup and view all the answers

Which additional factor does NOT influence audience effects according to social facilitation theories?

The performer's age Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of attitudes in social psychology?

To appraise objects efficiently Signup and view all the answers

According to the three-component model of attitude structure, which components are included?

Affective, behavioral, and cognitive components Signup and view all the answers

What aspect distinguishes explicit attitudes from implicit attitudes?

Explicit attitudes operate at a conscious level Signup and view all the answers

What does the one-component model of attitude structure focus on?

The affective component associated with an object Signup and view all the answers

Which function of attitudes helps individuals achieve desired goals?

Instrumentality function Signup and view all the answers

How are attitudes organized according to the content presented?

Attitudes form interconnected networks Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes attitudes regarding their permanence?

Attitudes are relatively enduring, though modifiable Signup and view all the answers

Which option correctly reflects the evaluative nature of attitudes?

Attitudes involve judgments about socially significant stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What does cognitive dissonance primarily arise from?

Inconsistencies between cognitions or behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What is a key strategy individuals use to reduce post-decision dissonance?

Increasing the attractiveness of the chosen option Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon occurs when individuals adjust their attitudes to agree with their behavior due to insufficient justification?

Justification of counter-attitudinal behavior Signup and view all the answers

What role does reactance play in resistance to persuasion?

Motivates individuals to resist restrictions on freedom Signup and view all the answers

How can the inoculation effect strengthen resistance to persuasion?

By exposing individuals to weaker arguments first Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the term 'effort justification'?

Valuing an object more after enduring hardship to obtain it Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive process is primarily involved in the justification of counter-attitudinal behavior?

Changing attitudes to align with contradictory actions Signup and view all the answers

Why do individuals exhibit resistance to persuasion when forewarned?

They prepare with counterarguments and strategies Signup and view all the answers

What factor influences the degree of cognitive dissonance according to Cooper & Fazio's revised model?

Self-attribution of arousal and consequences Signup and view all the answers

Successful examples of action research in health promotion generally aim to achieve what outcome?

Modification of behavior and attitudes Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the optimal conditions necessary for improving intergroup relations?

Shared goals requiring intergroup cooperation Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism is associated with reducing prejudice during intergroup contact?

Enhanced knowledge about the outgroup Signup and view all the answers

What is a challenge faced when trying to ensure positive intergroup contact experiences?

Generalizing positive contact experiences Signup and view all the answers

Which strategy involves minimizing category salience to improve intergroup interactions?

Decategorization Signup and view all the answers

What does the Common Ingroup Identity Model aim to establish?

A superordinate identity encompassing both groups Signup and view all the answers

Which approach emphasizes both the salience of group memberships and the value of interpersonal closeness?

Integrative Theory Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the identified challenges in addressing intergroup contact?

Overcoming systemic issues that perpetuate inequalities Signup and view all the answers

What role does repeated informal interaction play in intergroup contact?

It helps enhance empathy and perspective-taking. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)?

Behaviour is determined by behavioural intentions shaped by attitudes and subjective norms. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can strengthen the link between attitudes and behaviour?

Aggregating multiple behaviours related to a single attitude. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) add to the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)?

Perceived behavioural control. Signup and view all the answers

What does the mere exposure effect explain in attitude formation?

Repeated exposure to a stimulus can enhance liking for it. Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves inferring attitudes based on personal behaviors?

Self-perception theory. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary challenge in measuring attitudes through self-report methods?

They don't capture automatic or implicit attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best defines ideologies?

Integrated sets of attitudes forming a worldview. Signup and view all the answers

How does social learning influence attitude formation?

Through observing and imitating the behaviours of significant others. Signup and view all the answers

What factor can override attitudes on behaviour in a social context?

Unforeseen circumstances. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Implicit Association Test (IAT) primarily assess?

Unconscious associations related to attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can be a source of competing attitudes in a person?

Different motivations influencing behaviour. Signup and view all the answers

In what way does physiological measurement of attitudes differ from self-report methods?

It provides insight into unconscious reactions. Signup and view all the answers

What role do norms play in the attitude-behaviour relationship?

They can undermine the influence of personal attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Attitudes are evaluations of objects, people, events, and symbols, influenced by experience and shaping responses.
Attitudes are enduring but can be modified, involve positive or negative judgments, and form interconnected networks.
Attitudes operate at both conscious and unconscious levels.

Functions of Attitudes

Attitudes serve knowledge, instrumentality, ego-defence, and value-expressiveness functions.
The primary function of attitudes is object appraisal, providing a framework for navigating the social world.

Structure of Attitudes

The one-component model focuses on the affective component, the positive or negative feeling associated with an object.
The two-component model adds a "state of mental readiness" to the affective component, suggesting a predisposition to respond in certain ways.
The three-component model, the most prevalent, includes affective, behavioural, and cognitive components, acknowledging the interplay of feelings, thoughts, and actions in shaping attitudes.

Attitudes and Behaviour

The relationship between attitudes and behaviour is complex and often weaker than anticipated.
Discrepancies can be explained by methodological factors (specificity and aggregation), personal factors (competing attitudes, motivations, lack of perceived connection, cost of behaviour), and social factors (norms, presence of others, lack of alternatives, unforeseen circumstances).

Theories of Attitude-Behaviour Link

The Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) suggests that behaviour is determined by behavioural intentions, shaped by attitudes towards the behaviour and subjective norms.
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) extends the TRA by including perceived behavioural control, acknowledging that individuals may not have full control over their actions.

Attitude Formation

Behavioural explanations:
- Mere exposure effect: Repeated exposure to a stimulus can lead to increased liking.
- Classical conditioning: Pairing a neutral stimulus with a positive or negative stimulus can transfer the affective response.
- Operant conditioning: Rewards and punishments associated with a behaviour can shape attitudes towards that behaviour.
Cognitive explanations:
- Self-perception theory: Individuals infer their attitudes from their own behaviour.
- Cognitive algebra: Individuals integrate information about an object using mental calculations, such as weighted averaging.
Social explanations:
- Social learning/modelling: Observing and imitating the attitudes and behaviours of others, particularly significant individuals.
- Social identity and groups: Group memberships influence attitudes and shape individual perspectives.

Ideologies are integrated sets of attitudes that form a worldview, defining goals and strategies for society.
Values are global, abstract principles that guide conduct and serve as standards for evaluation.
Social representations are shared understandings of the world constructed and communicated within social groups, influencing attitudes and beliefs.

Measurement of Attitudes

Direct measurement (self-report): Involves asking individuals to express their attitudes directly through rating scales or questionnaires.
Measures of implicit attitudes: Techniques like the Implicit Association Test (IAT) assess unconscious associations and bypass potential biases of self-report.
Physiological measures: Monitoring physiological responses such as heart rate and facial expressions can offer insights into attitudes.
Overt behaviour: Observing behaviours like interpersonal distance can provide indirect evidence of attitudes.

Persuasion and Attitude Change

Persuasion is defined as deliberate attempts to change someone's attitude.
Action research in health promotion demonstrates the effectiveness of persuasion in influencing behaviours, like the SunSmart campaign in Australia.

Cognitive Dissonance and Attitude Change

Cognitive dissonance arises when inconsistencies exist between cognitions or between cognitions and behaviour, leading to psychological discomfort.
Individuals are motivated to reduce this discomfort by changing their attitudes or behaviours.
Festinger's classic cognitive dissonance model (1957) explains how individuals reduce dissonance.
The revised model by Cooper & Fazio (1984) includes consideration of negative consequences and self-attribution of arousal as factors influencing dissonance reduction.
Key dissonance-related phenomena include:
- Post-decision dissonance: Regret or discomfort after making a decision, often resolved by increasing the attractiveness of the chosen option (Knox & Inkster, 1968).
- Justification of counter-attitudinal behaviour: Changing attitudes to align with behaviour that contradicts existing beliefs, especially when justification for the behaviour is insufficient (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959).
- Effort justification: Valuing an object or goal more after enduring hardship to obtain it (Aronson & Mills, 1959).

Resistance to Persuasion

Individuals resist persuasion through:
- Reactance: Resisting attempts to limit personal freedom.
- Forewarning: Having prior knowledge of persuasive intent.
- Rehearsal of counterarguments: Being prepared with opposing arguments.
- Inoculation effect: Exposure to weaker arguments strengthens resistance to stronger ones.
- Attitude accessibility and strength: Strong, readily accessible attitudes are more resistant to change.

Application of Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance principles can be applied to promote positive behaviour change.

Triplett (1898) found cyclists performed better with others, initiating the study of audience effects.
Social facilitation: Performance improvement on well-learned/easy tasks in the presence of others.
Social inhibition: Performance deterioration on poorly-learned/difficult tasks in the presence of others.
Three key theories:
- Drive/Arousal Theory (Zajonc, 1965): Mere presence of others increases arousal, leading to the dominant response, supported by cockroach studies (Zajonc, Heingartner, & Herman, 1969).
- Evaluation Apprehension Theory (Cottrell, 1972): Arousal stems from concern about being evaluated, supported by studies with attentive and blindfolded audiences (Cottrell, Wack, Sekerak, & Rittle, 1968).
- Distraction-Conflict Theory (Baron, 1986; Sanders et al., 1978): Attentional conflict between the task and the audience causes arousal, explaining why even non-social distractions can produce similar effects.
Factors influencing audience effects: Visibility, performer-audience relationship, and task interactivity.

Intergroup Contact

Contact between groups, under optimal conditions, can improve intergroup relations.
Optimal Conditions: Equal status, shared goals, social and institutional support, opportunities for repeated informal interaction and friendship potential.
Mechanisms: Increased knowledge about the outgroup, reduced intergroup anxiety, enhanced empathy and perspective-taking.
Meta-Analytic Evidence: Contact consistently reduces prejudice across diverse contexts and generalizes to various group memberships.

Challenges for Intergroup Contact

Ensuring positive contact experiences.
Achieving shared goals and avoiding outgroup blame for failures.
Generalizing positive contact experiences beyond the immediate situation.
Addressing the lack of contact opportunities.
Overcoming social change and systemic issues that perpetuate inequalities.

Strategies for Generalizing Contact Effects

Decategorization: Minimizing category salience to foster interpersonal interactions.
Mutual Differentiation: Maintaining distinct group identities while highlighting positive intergroup interdependence.
Common Ingroup Identity Model: Creating a superordinate identity encompassing both groups.
Temporal Model: Progressing through stages of decategorization, differentiation, and common identity development.
Integrative Theory: Combining salience of group memberships with interpersonal closeness and valuing each group's contribution.

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Description

Explore the multifaceted nature of attitudes as they relate to social psychology. This quiz delves into the functions, structures, and the impact of attitudes on human behavior and social interactions. Understand how attitudes shape perceptions and responses at both conscious and unconscious levels.