Attention and Consciousness

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Questions and Answers

What is attention?

The ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations in the environment.

What types of issues demonstrate a disconnection between conscious awareness and attention?

Issues such as spatial neglect and blindsight.

What is spatial neglect?

Unilateral neglect syndrome, often due to damage to the right parietal lobe, causing a failure to attend to the left side of space.

What is blindsight?

A condition where individuals can respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness, often due to damage in the visual cortex. Signup and view all the answers

What is selective attention?

The process of focusing on one particular stimulus while ignoring others. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the dichotic listening task.

Different audio messages are played in each ear, and participants are asked to focus on one (attended channel) and ignore the other (unattended channel). Signup and view all the answers

What does the Stroop task demonstrate?

It demonstrates automaticity, showing how reading a word interferes with the ability to name the color of the ink. Signup and view all the answers

What is automaticity in cognitive psychology?

The characteristic of tasks that become automatic with practice, requiring minimal attention, such as reading. Signup and view all the answers

What is the cocktail party effect?

The ability to focus on one conversation despite background noise, while still noticing personally relevant information (like hearing your name) from unattended stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Define inattentional blindness.

Failing to notice visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere. Signup and view all the answers

What is change blindness?

Failing to detect changes in a visual scene due to a lack of focused attention on the changing element. Signup and view all the answers

According to the early selection hypothesis, when does attention filter stimuli?

Before perceptual analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What does the late selection hypothesis suggest about stimulus processing?

It suggests all stimuli are processed to some degree (e.g., for meaning) before attentional selection occurs. Signup and view all the answers

What is divided attention?

The ability to attend to multiple tasks or stimuli simultaneously. Signup and view all the answers

What is executive control?

A set of higher-level cognitive processes that regulate attention, manage conflicting information, coordinate task performance, and inhibit inappropriate responses. Signup and view all the answers

True or False: As tasks become more practiced and automatic, they require more executive control.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does priming affect attentional selection?

Priming enhances attention towards expected (expectation-driven or top-down priming) or recently encountered/salient (stimulus-based or bottom-up priming) stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What does the biased competition theory propose about attention?

It suggests that attention works by biasing the competition between stimuli for neural processing resources, enhancing the representation of attended items while suppressing unattended ones. Signup and view all the answers

What are some key factors affecting attention?

Available cognitive resources, stimulus salience (how much it stands out), and expectations or goals. Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'spotlight' metaphor for attention?

It likens visual attention to a spotlight that illuminates a specific area of the visual field, enhancing processing within that area while leaving areas outside the beam less processed. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the alerting system in attention?

To achieve and maintain an alert, vigilant state, ready to respond to incoming stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the executive system play in attention?

It manages cognitive control, including selecting appropriate responses, task switching, conflict resolution, and inhibiting prepotent but incorrect responses. Signup and view all the answers

Differentiate between endogenous and exogenous control of attention.

Endogenous control is voluntary, intentional, and goal-directed (top-down), while exogenous control is automatic, involuntary, and stimulus-driven (bottom-up), often triggered by salient external events. Signup and view all the answers

What is encoding in the context of memory?

The initial process of acquiring information from the environment and transforming it into a format that can be stored in memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is memory storage?

The process of retaining or maintaining encoded information over time. Signup and view all the answers

Define memory retrieval.

The process of accessing or bringing to mind previously encoded and stored information when it is needed. Signup and view all the answers

What is sensory memory?

A very brief memory store that holds an exact replica of sensory information (e.g., iconic for visual, echoic for auditory) for a fraction of a second to a few seconds. Signup and view all the answers

Describe short-term memory (STM).

A memory system characterized by temporary storage and limited capacity, often cited as holding around 7 ± 2 items or chunks of information for a short duration (seconds) without rehearsal. Signup and view all the answers

What are the key characteristics of long-term memory (LTM)?

It is a memory system characterized by potentially long-lasting storage (from minutes to a lifetime) and a vast, possibly unlimited capacity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the serial position effect, including the primacy and recency effects?

The tendency for items presented at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list or sequence to be recalled better than items in the middle. Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of George Miller's '7 ± 2' finding?

It represents the classic estimate for the capacity limit of short-term memory, suggesting people can typically hold between 5 and 9 distinct items (or meaningful chunks) in STM at one time. Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking in memory?

The process of organizing or grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units (chunks) to increase the effective capacity of short-term or working memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley's working memory model?

It acts as the attentional control center, directing focus, coordinating the activities of the subsidiary systems (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer), and managing cognitive tasks and information flow. Signup and view all the answers

What type of information does the visuospatial sketchpad handle in working memory?

It temporarily stores and manipulates visual (what things look like) and spatial (where things are) information. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the phonological loop in working memory?

It temporarily maintains auditory and verbal information through subvocal rehearsal (inner speech). Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the episodic buffer in working memory?

It serves as a temporary, limited-capacity storage space that integrates information from the other working memory components (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad) and long-term memory into a coherent, multi-modal episodic representation. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the levels of processing theory of memory.

This theory proposes that memory durability depends on the depth at which information is processed during encoding; deep processing (focusing on meaning, semantics, and relations) leads to better long-term memory than shallow processing (focusing on superficial physical features or sound). Signup and view all the answers

True or False: Information that is unique or distinctive is generally harder to remember than commonplace information.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

What is elaborative rehearsal?

A memory encoding strategy that involves thinking about the meaning of new information and linking it to existing knowledge stored in long-term memory, rather than simply repeating it (maintenance rehearsal). Signup and view all the answers

What is the self-reference effect?

The tendency for information that is related to oneself or personal experiences to be encoded more deeply and remembered better than information processed in other ways (e.g., related to others or processed semantically). Signup and view all the answers

Define incidental learning.

Learning that occurs without a specific intention or conscious effort to learn or memorize the material. Signup and view all the answers

Define intentional learning.

Learning that occurs as a result of deliberate effort and specific intention to memorize or acquire information. Signup and view all the answers

What are mnemonics?

Strategies or techniques used as memory aids to help organize, encode, and retrieve information, often by imposing structure or linking new material to familiar cues. Signup and view all the answers

What is context-dependent memory?

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is facilitated (better) when the external physical environment or context during retrieval matches the context that was present during encoding. Signup and view all the answers

What is context reinstatement?

A retrieval strategy that involves mentally recreating or imagining the context (physical environment, internal state, thoughts) in which information was originally learned, in order to improve recall. Signup and view all the answers

State the encoding specificity principle.

Memory retrieval is most effective (successful and accurate) when the cues available or generated at the time of retrieval match or overlap with the cues and context that were processed during the encoding of the information. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the concept of spreading activation in memory networks.

When a concept or memory node is activated (e.g., by thinking about it or encountering a related cue), this activation automatically spreads through connections to related nodes in the semantic network, temporarily increasing their accessibility or likelihood of being retrieved. Signup and view all the answers

What are explicit memory tests? Give examples.

Tests designed to assess conscious, intentional recollection of past information or events. Signup and view all the answers

What is source memory?

The ability to remember the origin or context of a memory – where, when, or from whom a particular piece of information was learned or an event was experienced. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by familiarity in memory?

A feeling of knowing or sense that something has been encountered before, often occurring quickly and automatically, without necessarily retrieving specific contextual details about the prior encounter. Signup and view all the answers

What did the 'false fame' study demonstrate about familiarity?

It demonstrated that previously encountered non-famous names could be misjudged as famous after a delay because their heightened familiarity (due to prior exposure) was misattributed to the quality of being famous, especially when source memory for the initial encounter failed. Signup and view all the answers

What is the illusion of truth effect?

The tendency for people to rate statements they have encountered repeatedly as more likely to be true, simply because of the repetition and resulting increased familiarity or processing fluency, regardless of the statement's actual validity. Signup and view all the answers

Define source confusion.

An error in memory where the origin, source, or context of a memory is misremembered, misattributed to the wrong source, or confused with another source. Signup and view all the answers

What is processing fluency and how does it relate to familiarity?

Processing fluency is the subjective feeling of ease or difficulty associated with perceiving, processing, or retrieving information. Higher processing fluency (greater ease) often leads to, or is interpreted as, a stronger feeling of familiarity. Signup and view all the answers

What is amnesia? Mention different types.

A significant loss of memory function, typically resulting from brain damage (e.g., to the hippocampus or related structures), neurological disease, or psychological trauma. Signup and view all the answers

What issues can demonstrate a disconnection between conscious awareness and attention?

Spatial neglect and blindsight. Signup and view all the answers

What happens in a dichotic listening task?

Different audio messages are played in each ear, and participants attend to one message while ignoring the other. Signup and view all the answers

The Stroop task primarily demonstrates which cognitive phenomenon?

Automaticity and interference (A) Signup and view all the answers

What is inattentional blindness?

Failing to notice visible objects because attention is focused elsewhere. Signup and view all the answers

According to the Early Selection Hypothesis, attention filters stimuli:

Before perceptual analysis (C) Signup and view all the answers

How does the Late Selection Hypothesis differ from the Early Selection Hypothesis regarding when attentional filtering occurs?

The Late Selection Hypothesis proposes that all stimuli undergo some processing (e.g., for meaning) before selection, whereas the Early Selection Hypothesis suggests filtering happens before perceptual analysis. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of executive control?

It refers to a set of cognitive processes responsible for regulating attention and managing cognitive tasks. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two types of priming mentioned that enhance attention selection?

Expectation-driven priming and stimulus-based priming. Signup and view all the answers

According to Biased Competition Theory, how does attention work to prioritize certain stimuli?

It enhances the neural responses associated with the attended stimuli, effectively biasing the competition between stimuli for processing resources. Signup and view all the answers

What are three key factors that affect attention?

Available cognitive resources, stimulus salience (how much it stands out), and expectations. Signup and view all the answers

What does the metaphor 'attention as a spotlight' mean?

It likens attention to a beam of light that illuminates a specific area of the visual field, allowing for enhanced processing of information within that area. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the alerting system within the network model of attention?

To maintain an alert or vigilant state, ready to respond to stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the orienting system play in attention?

It directs attention towards a particular stimulus or location in space. Signup and view all the answers

What functions does the executive system (or executive control network) manage in relation to attention?

It manages cognitive control processes such as task switching, conflict resolution, and inhibiting prepotent responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between endogenous and exogenous control of attention?

Endogenous control is voluntary and goal-directed (top-down), while exogenous control is automatic and triggered by external stimuli (bottom-up). Signup and view all the answers

What is retrieval in the context of memory?

The process of accessing information that has been previously encoded and stored. Signup and view all the answers

What is sensory memory, and what are the terms for its visual and auditory forms?

Sensory memory holds sensory information for a very brief period. Visual sensory memory is called iconic memory, and auditory sensory memory is called echoic memory. Signup and view all the answers

What are the main characteristics of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

It is a temporary storage system with a limited capacity, often cited as holding around 7 plus or minus 2 items. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the key features of Long-Term Memory (LTM).

LTM is characterized by its long duration and seemingly unlimited capacity for storing information. Signup and view all the answers

What are the primacy and recency effects observed in free recall tasks?

The primacy effect is the better recall for items presented at the beginning of a list, while the recency effect is the better recall for items presented at the end of the list. Signup and view all the answers

What does George Miller's famous finding, often summarized as '7 ± 2', refer to?

It refers to the estimated capacity of short-term memory, suggesting people can hold approximately 5 to 9 items (chunks) in mind at once. Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking as a memory strategy?

Grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units. Signup and view all the answers

In Baddeley's model of working memory, which component is responsible for directing attention and managing cognitive tasks?

Central Executive (C) Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the visuospatial sketchpad in the working memory model?

It temporarily stores and manipulates visual and spatial information. Signup and view all the answers

What function does the phonological loop serve in the working memory model?

It maintains auditory and verbal information through subvocal rehearsal. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the episodic buffer play in Baddeley's working memory model?

It acts as a temporary storage system that integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into a coherent episode. Signup and view all the answers

According to the Levels of Processing theory, what type of processing leads to better memory encoding?

Deep processing, which involves focusing on the meaning of information (semantic processing). Signup and view all the answers

Why is distinctiveness considered beneficial for memory?

Because unique or unusual information stands out and is less likely to suffer interference, making it easier to remember. Signup and view all the answers

What is the self-reference effect in memory?

The tendency for information related to oneself to be remembered better than information processed in other ways. Signup and view all the answers

What is incidental learning?

Learning that occurs without a deliberate intention to learn or memorize information. Signup and view all the answers

What is intentional learning?

Learning that occurs as a result of deliberate effort and the intention to memorize information. Signup and view all the answers

What are mnemonics, and can you provide examples?

Mnemonics are strategies or techniques used to improve memory. Examples include first-letter mnemonics (like ROY G. BIV for rainbow colors) and peg-word systems (associating items with a pre-memorized list of 'peg' words). Signup and view all the answers

What is context reinstatement as a memory retrieval strategy?

Mentally recreating the context (environment, mood, thoughts) in which learning originally occurred to help access stored memories. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Encoding Specificity Principle state?

It states that memory retrieval is most effective when the cues available at retrieval match the cues that were present and processed during encoding. Signup and view all the answers

What is spreading activation in the context of memory models?

It's a theoretical concept where activating one concept or node in a semantic network causes activation to spread to related concepts or nodes, making them temporarily more accessible. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes explicit memory tests, and what are common examples?

Explicit memory tests require conscious and deliberate recollection of past information. Common examples include recall (e.g., essay questions) and recognition (e.g., multiple-choice questions). Signup and view all the answers

What is familiarity in the context of memory retrieval?

A subjective sense that one has encountered a stimulus (like a face or name) before, without necessarily being able to recall specific details or the context of the prior encounter. Signup and view all the answers

How is memory typically assessed in implicit memory tests, and what are some example tasks?

Implicit memory tests assess memory indirectly, without requiring conscious recollection, often by measuring changes in performance facilitated by prior experience. Examples include word-stem completion, priming tasks, and the lexical decision task. Signup and view all the answers

What key finding regarding familiarity was demonstrated by Jacoby's 'False Fame' study?

The study showed that previously encountered non-famous names could be mistakenly judged as famous later on, because the prior exposure created a sense of familiarity that was misattributed to fame. Signup and view all the answers

What is source confusion (or source misattribution)?

A memory error where one correctly recalls a piece of information but misremembers its source or context. Signup and view all the answers

What is processing fluency, and how does it influence the feeling of familiarity?

Processing fluency is the subjective ease with which information is perceived or processed. Increased fluency, often due to prior exposure, can lead to a feeling of familiarity. Signup and view all the answers

What is amnesia, and what are its main types? Can you give an example?

Amnesia is memory loss, typically resulting from brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. Key types include retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories). Conditions like Korsakoff's syndrome and cases like Clive Wearing illustrate severe amnesia. Signup and view all the answers

What are some problems that demonstrate a disconnection between attention and consciousness?

Issues such as spatial neglect and blindsight. Signup and view all the answers

Define blindsight.

Individuals can respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness, often due to damage in the visual cortex. Signup and view all the answers

What is automaticity in cognitive tasks?

Tasks that become automatic with practice, requiring minimal attention, such as reading. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the cocktail party effect.

The ability to focus on one conversation despite background noise, but still noticing personally relevant information (like hearing your name) from unattended channels. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Early Selection Hypothesis suggest about attention?

It suggests attention filters stimuli before perceptual analysis, meaning unattended stimuli receive little to no processing. Signup and view all the answers

Define executive control.

A set of cognitive processes, associated with the prefrontal cortex, that regulate attention and manage cognitive tasks, including planning, working memory, and task switching. Signup and view all the answers

True or False: With practice, tasks require more executive control.

False (B) Signup and view all the answers

How does priming influence attention selection?

Expectation-driven (top-down) and stimulus-based (bottom-up) priming enhance attention towards expected or familiar stimuli, making them easier to detect or process. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Biased Competition Theory suggest about attention?

It suggests that attention prioritizes certain stimuli by enhancing neural responses to those inputs while suppressing responses to competing inputs. Signup and view all the answers

What metaphor is often used to describe attention's ability to focus?

Attention is often likened to a spotlight that can be moved to different areas in the visual field, enhancing processing within its beam. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the executive system in attention?

Manages task switching, conflict resolution, and overall control of attentional processes. Signup and view all the answers

Distinguish between endogenous and exogenous control of attention.

Endogenous control involves voluntary, goal-directed, intentional attention shifts (top-down), while exogenous control refers to automatic attention shifts triggered by salient external stimuli (bottom-up). Signup and view all the answers

Define storage in memory.

The process of retaining encoded information over time. Signup and view all the answers

What is retrieval in memory?

The process of accessing stored information when needed. Signup and view all the answers

Describe sensory memory.

A very brief memory store that holds sensory information for a short period (e.g., iconic memory for visual stimuli, echoic memory for auditory stimuli). Signup and view all the answers

Explain the primacy/recency effect.

The tendency to have enhanced recall for items presented at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list compared to items in the middle. Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking and how does it aid memory?

Chunking is the process of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units. It aids memory by effectively increasing the capacity of short-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Central Executive in working memory?

It acts as the control center, directing attention, managing cognitive tasks, coordinating the activity of the subsystems (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad), and interacting with long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Visuospatial Sketchpad?

It is a component of working memory responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of visual and spatial information. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Phonological Loop do in working memory?

It is a component of working memory that deals with auditory information. It maintains sound-based information using subvocal rehearsal. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Episodic Buffer?

It is a component of working memory that integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and long-term memory into a coherent, time-sequenced episode. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the Levels of Processing theory.

This theory proposes that memory retention depends on the depth of processing during encoding. Deep processing (focusing on meaning, semantic processing) leads to better memory than shallow processing (focusing on superficial features like structure or sound). Signup and view all the answers

How does distinctiveness affect memory?

Information that is unique, unusual, or distinct from other information is generally easier to remember. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the self-reference effect.

The tendency for information that is related to oneself to be remembered better than information related to other topics. Signup and view all the answers

Explain context-dependent memory.

The finding that memory retrieval is often better when the external environment or context at retrieval matches the context during encoding. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Encoding Specificity Principle?

This principle states that memory is most effective when the information available at retrieval (retrieval cues) matches the information stored in memory, including the context in which it was encoded. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the concept of spreading activation in memory.

A model proposing that activating one memory node (concept or idea) triggers the activation of related nodes in a semantic network, making related information more accessible. Signup and view all the answers

What are explicit memory tests?

Tasks that directly assess conscious recollection of past information or events, such as recall (retrieving information without cues) and recognition (identifying previously encountered information). Signup and view all the answers

Define familiarity in the context of memory retrieval.

A sense of knowing or recognition that occurs without necessarily recalling specific details or the context (source) of the memory. Signup and view all the answers

What are implicit memory tests used for?

They assess memory indirectly, measuring the influence of past experiences on current behavior without requiring conscious recollection. Examples include word-stem completion or the lexical decision task. Signup and view all the answers

What did the 'False Fame Study' demonstrate?

It demonstrated that familiarity, based on prior exposure, can lead to misattributions. Participants mistakenly identified previously seen non-famous names as famous because the names felt familiar. Signup and view all the answers

How does processing fluency influence memory judgments like familiarity?

Information that is processed more easily or fluently (due to prior exposure or simplicity) is often judged as more familiar, even if the source of the fluency is misattributed. Signup and view all the answers

What is amnesia?

Memory loss resulting from brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. Different types include retrograde amnesia (loss of past memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories). Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Attention

The ability to focus on specific stimuli or locations in the environment.

Problems between attention and consciousness

Issues such as spatial neglect and blindsight can demonstrate disconnection between conscious awareness and attention.

Spatial Neglect

Unilateral neglect syndrome, often due to damage to the right parietal lobe, causing a failure to attend to the left side of space.

Blindsight

Individuals can respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness, often due to damage in the visual cortex.