Consciousness, Attention, Learning and Memory

• These notes cover consciousness, attention, learning and memory

Consciousness

• Consciousness is the awareness of ourselves and our environment
• It includes thoughts, sensations, perceptions, and the ability to reflect on experiences

States and Functions of Consciousness

• Waking consciousness, sleep, dreaming, hypnosis, and altered states from substances are all states of consciousness.
• Functions of consciousness include decision-making, problem-solving, self-reflection, and adapting to the environment.

Selective Attention and Perception

• Selective attention involves focusing on a particular stimulus while ignoring others
• It allows us to concentrate on important information, at the potential cost of missing other details

Cocktail Party Effect

• The cocktail party effect defines the ability to focus on one voice amidst many
• Attention is selectively tuned to relevant information; recognizing your name in a crowd is an example

Dichotic Listening Task and Selective Attention Research

• Broadbent's filter model suggests information is filtered before it's fully processed
• Cherry's research indicated that individuals focusing on one ear's input struggle to recall the unattended message
• Triesman's attenuation model suggests unattended information is weakened but still processed
• Eich's studies demonstrated that meaning from unattended information can influence responses

Dual Processing

• Dual processing addresses the mind's operation on both conscious (explicit) and unconscious (implicit) tracks
• Conscious processing is deliberate, while unconscious processing occurs automatically

Blindsight Awareness

• In blindsight awareness, individuals with visual cortex damage respond to visual stimuli without conscious perception
• This implies vision has multiple processing pathways

Change Blindness and Inattentional Blindness

• Change blindness is failure to notice significant scene changes when focus is elsewhere
• An example of change blindness is not noticing a background change in movie
• Inattentional blindness is a failure to see an object when attention is directed elsewhere
• The invisible gorilla experiment shows inattentional blindess

Parallel vs. Sequential Processing

• Parallel processing involves handling multiple pieces of information simultaneously, usually unconsciously
• Recognizing colors and shapes at once uses parallel processing
• Sequential processing involves focusing on one thing at a time and is used for novel or complex tasks
• Solving a math problem step by step uses sequential processing

Impact of Selective Attention and Failures of Awareness

• Selective attention is helpful but can lead to accidents, such as when texting while driving
• Change and inattentional blindness can cause oversight in important tasks

Selective Attention in the Digital Age

• Technology distracts attention through notifications, which reduces deep focus
• Mindfulness, time management, and distraction reduction improve attention in the digital age

Applications of Consciousness Research

• Consciousness research is used in psychology to understand disorders like ADHD
• It helps AI development by replicating attention mechanisms and affects learning and memory strategies

Attention and Cognitive Load

• Cognitive load is the total mental effort used in working memory
• High cognitive load can reduce attention span, causing mental fatigue

Review and Practice

• Practices includes spotting inattentional blindness, discussing dual processing, and selective attention tests

Understanding Basic Learning Concepts

• Learning results in permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience
• Nature pertains to genetics; nurture, to environmental factors in learning
• Psychologists consider learning essential for helping organisms adapt, survive, and thrive

Different Ways of Learning

• Three primary types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning

Behaviorism and Key Figures

• Behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors rather than mental processes
• Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning
• John B. Watson applied classical conditioning to human behavior
• Edward Thorndike researched the law of effect in operant conditioning
• B.F. Skinner studied reinforcement, shaping, and schedules of reinforcement
• Albert Bandura researched observational learning

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov discovered that someone can learn to associate a neutral stimulus with an automatic response

• Key components of classical conditioning are
  • UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): Naturally triggers a response (e.g., food)
  • UCR (Unconditioned Response): Natural reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation)
  • CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after conditioning (e.g., bell)
  • CR (Conditioned Response): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell)
• Real life examples: fear of needles (UCS = pain, UCR = fear, CS = seeing a needle, CR = anxiety)
• Classical conditioning is applied in phobia treatment, behavior therapy, and advertising
• Key processes in classical conditioning are
  • Acquisition: Learning phase when association is made
  • Extinction: Weakening response when UCS is no longer paired with CS
  • Spontaneous Recovery: Response reappears after an extinction

Operant Conditioning

• Operant behaviors are actions that are influenced by consequences
• Examples of consequences
• Positive reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., praise for grades)
• Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., taking painkillers)
• Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., getting a fine)
• Negative punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus (e.g., losing privileges)
• Behaviors followed by rewards are more likely to be repeated using Thorndike's Law of Effect
• Skinner contributed to operant conditioning
  • Reinforcement strengthens behavior
  • Shaping rewards successive approximations toward desired behavior
  • Schedules of reinforcement affect learning and extinction resistance -Intrinsic reinforcers are internal motivation; extrinsic, external rewards

Shaping Desired Behavior

• Effective shaping involves reinforcing small steps towards a final goal
• Contingent conditioning means reinforcement follows desired behavior consistently
• Various reinforcement schedules:
  • Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of responses
  • Variable Ratio: Reward after an unpredictable number of responses
  • Fixed Interval: Reward after a set time Variable Interval: Reward after an unpredictable time

Observational Learning

• Observational learning occurs by watching and imitating behaviors, known as modeling
• The Bobo doll experiment showed that children can imitate observed aggressive behavior
• Observational learning has real-world applications in education, social settings, and parenting

Studying and Encoding Memories

• Memory is the persistence of learning over time, via encoding, storage, and retrieval
• Measuring memory includes recall, recognition, and relearning
• Memory models include the information-processing model using encoding, storage, and retrievial stages
  • Information-processing model views memory in three stages
    • Sensory memory
    • Short-term memory
    • Long-term memory
• Sensory memory briefly holds sensory information
• Short-term memory has limited capacity (~7 items) and is short in duration without rehearsal Connectionism views memory as a network for parallel processing
• Explicit memories, like facts and experiences, require conscious effort
• Implicit memories involve automatic skills and habits Effortful processing strategies: Chunking, mnemonics, and hierarchies
• Distributed practice (spacing effect) and deep processing increase memory through timing and meaning
• Levels of processing: Shallow (surface) vs. deep (semantic connections)

Storing and Retrieving Memories

• Long-term memory is virtually unlimited and distributed across networks
• Frontal lobes and hippocampus consolidate explicit memories
• Retrieval cues help in accessing stored memories
• Recalling memories includes priming triggers, context-dependent, state-dependent, and serial positioning effects
  • Explicit memory: semantic for facts and episodic for experiences
• Memory Consolidation happens during sleep
• Emotions trigger stronger memories through stress hormones via vivid flashbulb memories
• Changes at the synapse level strengthen neural connections, enhancing memory storage

Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory

• Forgetting is caused by encoding, storage decay, and retrieval failures
• Memory construction causes the misinformation effect to occur regarding altered imaginative and original sources
• Memories can be distorted, which make it difficult to distinguish real events from imagination
• Repressed and recovered memories are controversial because therapy can implant false memories
• Children can be suggestible and can easily form false memories
• Memory can be improved through retrieval practice, associations, sleep, and spacing repetition