AP Psychology: Language

• AP Psychology covers language, motivation, and social psychology

Language

• Language involves interconnected components enabling communication of meaning

Components of Language

• Phonemes are the basic units of sound
  • An example of a phoneme is the "b" sound in "bat"
• Morphemes are the smallest units carrying meaning
  • Examples of morphemes include "un-" in "undo" and "-ed" for past tense
• Grammar is a language's system of rules
  • Syntax dictates sentence structure and word order
  • Semantics concerns the meaning of words and sentences

Language Development Theories

• Noam Chomsky's Nativist Theory posits humans possess a biological predisposition for language acquisition via a Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
  • Universal Grammar suggests all languages share common structural elements
• B.F. Skinner's Behaviorist Theory suggests that language is learned through operant conditioning via reinforcement and imitation
• The Interactionist Theory proposes language development arises from innate abilities combined with social interactions

Stages of Language Development

• Babbling Stage (4-6 months) involves infants making various sounds, including those outside their native language
• One-Word Stage (around 1 year) encompasses the use of single words to convey meaning
  • "Milk" could mean "I want milk"
• Two-Word Stage (around 2 years) is characterized by telegraphic speech
  • "Want cookie" is an example of telegraphic speech
• Complex Speech (2+ years) involves increasingly long and grammatically complex sentences

Linguistic Theories

• Linguistic Determinism (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) suggests language shapes thought processes
• Linguistic Relativity proposes language influences thought without determining it entirely

Motivation

• Motivation involves the driving forces behind behavior

Theories of Motivation

• Instinct Theory explains behavior as innate
  • The rooting reflex in babies exemplifies instinctual behavior
• Drive Reduction Theory suggests motivation arises from the need to reduce physiological drives
  • Eating when hungry is an example of drive reduction
• Optimum Arousal Theory indicates individuals seek to maintain an ideal level of stimulation
  • The Yerkes-Dodson Law states performance is optimal at moderate arousal levels
• Incentive Theory proposes external rewards and punishments drive behavior
  • Studying to achieve a good grade utilizes positive incentives
  • Avoiding detention by completing homework uses negative incentives
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs organizes motivation from basic to advanced needs
  • The order of needs are: Physiological, Safety, Love/Belonging, Esteem, and Self-Actualization

Biological Motivation

• Hunger & Eating are influenced by brain structures and internal signals
  • The Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) stimulates hunger
  • The Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) signals satiety
  • The Set-Point Theory states that the body aims to maintain a specific weight range
• Sexual Motivation is influenced by hormones such as testosterone and estrogen, in addition to social factors
• Achievement Motivation is the drive for success, fueled by internal and external rewards

Social Psychology

• Social psychology explores how individuals think, influence, and relate to one another

Social Thinking

• Attribution Theory is the explanation of behavior
  • Situational Attribution attributes behavior to external circumstances
  • Dispositional Attribution attributes behavior to internal personality traits
  • The Fundamental Attribution Error is the tendency to overemphasize personality and underemphasize the situation
• Cognitive Dissonance Theory (Leon Festinger) explains when attitudes and actions conflict, discomfort arises, prompting attitude or behavior change

Social Influence

• Conformity (Solomon Asch’s Study) is adjusting behavior to align with a group standard
  • Conformity is affected by group size, unanimity, and status
• Obedience (Stanley Milgram’s Study) demonstrates individuals' willingness to follow authority figures, even when it involves harming others
  • 65% of participants administered maximum shocks in Milgram's study
• Social Facilitation involves improved performance on simple tasks in the presence of others
• Social Loafing is the tendency for individuals to exert less effort in group tasks
• Deindividuation is the loss of self-awareness and restraint in group settings, leading to altered behavior (e.g., mob behavior)

Group Behavior

• Group Polarization is the enhancement of existing attitudes through group discussion
• Groupthink is when the desire for group harmony impairs decision-making
• The Bystander Effect (Diffusion of Responsibility) is the decreased likelihood of helping someone when more people are present

Prejudice & Discrimination

• Stereotypes are overgeneralized beliefs about a group
• Ingroup Bias is favoring one's own group
• Scapegoat Theory involves blaming others for problems
• The Just-World Phenomenon is the belief that individuals receive what they deserve

Attraction & Altruism

• The Mere Exposure Effect is the increased liking of something with repeated exposure
• Reciprocal Altruism is helping others with the expectation of receiving help in return
• Companionate love involves deep affection in long-term relationships, while passionate love is intense emotion that is short-lived