Pronunciation: Phonetics and Phonemes

Pronunciation Priorities

• Prioritizing the sounds that change the meaning of words is key when learning a new language
• These critical sounds are called phonemes
• Saying "pin" like "bin" can cause misunderstandings due to phoneme substitution
• Pronunciation varies depending on context such as pre-vocalic, intervocalic, or pre-consonantal positions
• Pronunciation also varies depending on position in a word - initial, medial, or final
• Example: /p/ sounds more like /b/ after /s/, as in sport versus port
• Incorrect pronunciation can be distracting or irritating to listeners regardless of comprehension
• Judgments of English ability are often based on pronunciation, even if grammar and vocabulary are advanced
• Aim for a pronunciation that is easily understood and doesn't distract listeners
• Mastering pronunciation involves more than just segments (vowels and consonants)
• Use of weak forms is needed for appropriate speech rhythm
• Contractions improve fluency
• Assimilation and elision are needed for authentic pronunciation

Phonemes and Allophones

• Some sound differences are critical, while others are insignificant
• Sounds that differentiate meaning are called phonemes
• A minimal pair is two words distinguished by a single phoneme e.g. bit – hit
• The English variety in this book has 24 consonant and 13 vowel phonemes
• Not all sound differences change word meaning
• Native English speakers interpret vowel length differences as variants of the same phoneme
• Different vowel lengths are caused by the influence of consonants like /t/ and /d/
• Phonemes have variants called allophones
• Allophones occur in complementary distribution or free variation
• Deal/door illustrate complementary distribution where allophones complement each other
• Vowels are shorter before voiceless consonants, longer before voiced consonants
• Face /feɪs/ has a shorter vowel than phase /feɪz/, illustrating complementary distribution
• Allophones in free variation have unpredictable occurrence from phonetic context
• The /t/ in hat can be pronounced with or without glottal reinforcement, an example of free variation
• Each language has a unique phoneme system and allophone range
• It’s important to avoid losing phoneme contrasts
• Speakers of different languages may perceive sounds differently because they group phonemes differently

Spelling and Sound

• English orthography is unreliable
• The vowel /i/ can be spelled in many ways e.g. me, see, sea
• Phoneticians use transcription rather than orthography
• Phonemic transcription indicates only phonemes using slant brackets / /
• The sign – shows phoneme contrasts, e.g., let /lɛt/ – met /mɛt/
• Phonetic transcription shows allophonic distinctions using square brackets [ ]
• Diacritics are marks added to symbols to show allophonic distinctions
• The rounded allophone of /t/ is shown as [tʷ]
• Homophones have the same pronunciation but different meanings
• Examples of homophones are key/quay, wait/weight, know/no, sea/see, cite/sight/site
• Homographs have the same spelling but different pronunciations
• The word row is a homograph, can be said differently based on definition

Phoneme Symbols

• There is no consensus on the symbols used for transcribing General American (GA)
• Even those using International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols vary in transcription
• The IPA provides symbols for a range of speech sounds, but doesn't dictate language analysis
• Transcriptions vary based on the audience (e.g., foreign learners, linguists) and purpose
• A transcription system is used which is mostly phonemic, incorporating a few non-phonemic elements
• Same symbol for schwa /ə/ in stressed and unstressed syllables and when followed by /r/

The Syllable

• A syllable is a group of sounds pronounced together
• Words are monosyllabic (one syllable) or polysyllabic (multiple syllables)
• A syllable almost always contains a vowel called the syllable nucleus
• Consonants before the nucleus are known as the syllable onset; after the nucleus, they are the coda
• A cluster is a group of consonants in the onset or coda
• English syllables can have up to three consonants in the onset and four in the coda
• Consider pronunciation, not spelling: time consists of one syllable
• A closed syllable has a coda, and an open syllable ends with a vowel
• Syllables can consist of a consonant alone frequently /n/ or /l/
• A consonant forming a syllable without a vowel is a syllabic consonant
• Syllabic consonants are shown with a vertical mark below the symbol
• A word like apple /'æpl̩/ has two syllables; apple has one vowel and a syllabic consonant

Stress

• Words consist of segments (vowels, consonants) in a specific order
• Multisyllabic words have a rhythmic pattern based on stressed syllables
• Stressed syllables are more prominent due to greater energy
• Stress is indicated with a vertical mark before the syllable
• The position of stress helps with word recognition
• Some words are distinguished by stress alone e.g. the noun increase /ˈɪŋkris/ and the verb increase /ɪŋˈkris/
• Some words have multiple stressed syllables e.g. Alabama, impossibility
• In multiple stresses, the last stress is most prominent, called primary stress
• Earlier, less prominent stresses are called secondary stress
• Pitch accent creates prominence
• Accented syllables have a change in pitch which is related to the speed at which the vocal folds vibrate
• When isolation speaking, the primary stress syllable is accented with a pitch movement
• Secondary stress involves a step up to a high pitch before the primary stress pitch movement
• Primary and secondary stresses are different kinds of pitch accent
• A stress mark is not used for monosyllabic words pronounced in isolation in this book because it's self-evident they are stressed

Pronunciation Model

• Every language has numerous accents
• An accent is a pronunciation variety that is characteristic of a group
• Accents can be regional or social
• General American (GA), an accent of American English, are heard from educated speakers in the USA and Canada
• GA is recommended as a model for imitation, unless you have reasons for another specific accent
• GA is the variety used by most American presenters and is called "Network English"
• Altering pronunciation away from regional accents moves it toward GA
• This book focuses on the speech of the average modern General American speaker
• Old-fashioned and trendy pronunciations aren't included