AP Psychology Chapter 2 Flashcards

Key Psychological Research Concepts

• Hindsight Bias: The inclination to believe an event was predictable after it has occurred; commonly expressed as "I knew it all along."
• Applied Research: Focuses on real-world applications, addressing practical issues and challenges.
• Basic Research: Curiosity-driven investigation intended to enhance understanding without immediate practical application.
• Variables: Elements that can change or vary, influencing research outcomes.

Experimental Design Terminology

• Independent Variable: The manipulated factor in an experiment aimed at observing its effects on the dependent variable.
• Dependent Variable: The outcome measured in an experiment that is expected to change based on the independent variable's manipulation.
• Validity: The extent to which research accurately measures its intended variables.
• Reliability: The consistency of a research study’s results across multiple trials.

Participant and Sampling Methods

• Participants: Individuals involved in a study; the subjects under investigation.
• Sampling: The method by which participants are selected for study.
• Population: The complete group from which a sample is drawn for research; represents a broader context.

Types of Sampling

• Random Selection: Ensures every individual has an equal chance of being chosen, enhancing sample representativeness.
• Stratified Sample: A sampling method ensuring specific subgroups are proportionately represented based on key characteristics.

Experiment Types

• Laboratory Experiments: Controlled experiments conducted in a managed environment for precise measurement.
• Field Experiments: Studies carried out in natural settings; less control but greater ecological validity.

Experimental Challenges

• Confounding Variable: External factors that may inadvertently affect results, complicating the interpretation of findings.
• Assignment: The method of grouping participants in an experiment. Random assignment minimizes pre-existing group differences.
• Participant-Relevant Confounding Variables: Individual differences among participants that can skew results.
• Situation-Relevant Confounding Variables: Environmental factors that may influence outcomes when groups experience differing conditions.

Biases in Research

• Experimenter Bias: A form of bias where researchers inadvertently influence their outcomes; can be minimized through double-blind procedures.
• Participant Bias: Changes in behavior due to awareness of being observed; reduced using single-blind procedures.
• Demand Characteristics: Cues that signal the study's purpose, possibly altering participants' responses.

Key Experimental Components

• Experimental Group: The group receiving the treatment in an experiment.
• Control Group: The group not subjected to treatment, used as a reference to evaluate experimental outcomes.
• Hawthorne Effect: Changes in behavior when participants know they are part of an experiment.

Study Design Techniques

• Placebo Effect: Improvements resulting from the expectation of treatment rather than the treatment itself.
• Order Effects: Variations in results caused by the sequence in which treatments are administered.
• Counterbalancing: A design technique that uses subjects as their own controls to minimize extraneous variables.

Correlation and Research Methods

• Correlation: Assessing the relationship between two variables, showing how one may predict the other.
• Positive Correlation: Indicates that one variable's presence suggests the other is also present.
• Negative Correlation: Indicates that one variable's presence suggests the absence of the other.

Additional Research Approaches

• Ex Post Facto Study: Research design that looks at existing differences rather than manipulates variables.
• Survey Method: Collects self-reported data from a representative sample through questions.
• Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural contexts without interference.
• Case Study: An in-depth exploration of a single subject to derive broader insights.
• Theory: A structured explanation that organizes observations and underpins hypothesis generation.
• Operational Definition: Specific procedures for measuring variables, critical for replicability and clarity.
• Replication: Repeating studies to validate findings across different contexts or populations.
• Experiment: A method involving manipulation of variables to observe effects on behavior or mental processes.