AP Psychology Unit 1B Flashcards
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of applied research?

  • To expand psychology's knowledge base
  • To predict behavioral events
  • To tackle practical problems (correct)
  • To ensure research validity

What does hindsight bias refer to?

  • A scientific approach that requires skepticism
  • The phenomenon of false consensus
  • The ability to predict outcomes before they occur
  • The tendency to believe one could foresee an outcome after learning it (correct)

What is a scientific attitude?

An approach to the world characterized by curiosity and skepticism.

What is critical thinking?

<p>Smart thinking that examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does validity refer to in research?

<p>The accuracy of an experiment and whether it measures what it is supposed to measure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does reliability mean in the context of scientific research?

<p>Consistency of results when an experiment is replicated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the scientific method?

<p>A process involving making observations, forming theories, and refining theories based on new observations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define the term 'theory' in psychological research.

<p>A framework that aims to explain a phenomenon and predict behaviors or events.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a hypothesis?

<p>Testable predictions implied by a theory, usually describing the relationship between two variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the null hypothesis?

<p>The opposite of the hypothesis, used when the hypothesis may be incorrect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are operational definitions?

<p>Precise statements used to define variables that allow others to replicate research.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is replication in research?

<p>The act of repeating an experiment to see if the same results are obtained.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define a case study.

<p>An in-depth study of a single individual or group, aiming to reveal universal principles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a survey in psychological research?

<p>A method that collects data from many cases in a less in-depth manner, often asking about behaviors or opinions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the false consensus effect?

<p>The tendency to overestimate others' agreement with our own beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does naturalistic observation involve?

<p>A research method that entails watching and recording behavior without interference.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a field experiment?

<p>An experiment conducted in a real-world setting outside of a lab.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who are subjects in an experiment?

<p>Individuals who participate and are observed during the research.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a sample in research?

<p>A representative group of individuals selected for a study.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'population' refer to in research?

<p>The entire group that a researcher is interested in studying and describing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is random sampling?

<p>A method where every individual has an equal chance of being chosen for participation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is stratified sampling?

<p>A sampling method that ensures representation of specific subgroups based on certain criteria.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a correlation coefficient?

<p>A statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a positive correlation?

<p>Both scores increase in direct proportion to each other.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a negative correlation?

<p>Two variables relate inversely; as one increases, the other decreases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are scatterplots?

<p>Graphs that plot the values of two variables and can show different types of correlation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a line of best fit in a scatterplot?

<p>A line representing the general trend of the data points plotted.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an illusory correlation?

<p>A perceived relationship that does not exist.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a laboratory experiment?

<p>An experiment conducted in a highly controlled environment to predict causal relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is experimenter bias?

<p>When a researcher unintentionally influences the outcome of an experiment to achieve desired results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define independent variable.

<p>The factor in an experiment that is manipulated to observe its effect.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a dependent variable?

<p>The variable that is measured in the experiment and may change in response to the independent variable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define confounding variable.

<p>An extraneous variable that may interfere with the effect of the independent variable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does assignment and random assignment refer to?

<p>The process of distributing subjects into different groups, with random assignment preferred to reduce bias.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is group matching?

<p>Categorizing subjects to potentially improve understanding of experimental results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the experimental condition?

<p>The condition that is altered for the experimental group in an experiment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the control condition?

<p>The unchanged condition that the control group operates under in an experiment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Hawthorne effect?

<p>The phenomenon where subjects alter their behavior due to awareness of being studied.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'blind' or subject bias refer to?

<p>A method that allows subjects to participate without knowing if they are being tested.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a placebo?

<p>A pseudotreatment that deceives participants into believing they are receiving actual treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the placebo effect?

<p>The improvement in symptoms due to the belief in receiving treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a double-blind procedure?

<p>A method where both experimenter and subjects are unaware of specific conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is counterbalancing?

<p>A technique in research designed to eliminate confounding variables by using both experimental and control groups.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a longitudinal study?

<p>A research design that observes the same subjects over an extended period.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a cross-sectional study?

<p>A study that examines different age groups simultaneously to understand developmental changes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are measures of central tendency?

<p>Statistical measures that help analyze data and recognize patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is mode in statistics?

<p>The most frequently occurring number in a data set.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does bimodal refer to?

<p>A situation where two modes exist within a data set.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mean?

<p>The average of values, calculated by dividing the sum of scores by the number of scores.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is median?

<p>The middle value in a data set when arranged in order.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are extreme scores?

<p>Outliers that are typically disregarded in analysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are measures of variation?

<p>Statistics that describe the spread or diversity of data distributions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is range in statistics?

<p>The difference between the maximum and minimum values in a data set.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is standard deviation?

<p>A computed measure indicating how much scores vary around the mean.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a z score?

<p>The distance of a score from the mean in units of standard deviation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is normal distribution?

<p>A bell-shaped curve representing perfectly symmetrical distribution.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does positively skewed mean?

<p>A distribution with more low scores than high scores, where the mode is below the mean.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does negatively skewed mean?

<p>A distribution with more high scores than low scores, where the mode is above the mean.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is variance?

<p>A measure of the degree of dispersion of a set of scores, calculated by squaring the standard deviation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is statistical significance?

<p>A determination of whether the observed effects in an experiment are due to treatment or chance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a p-value?

<p>Indicates the validity of an experiment, with a threshold of .05; below this, the experiment is valid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does IRB stand for?

<p>Institutional Review Board.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a Type I error?

<p>Occurs when a researcher mistakenly rejects the null hypothesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a Type II error?

<p>Occurs when a researcher accepts the null hypothesis when it is false.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the APA ethical guidelines for animal research?

<ol> <li>Must have a clear scientific purpose; 2. Must care for animals humanely; 3. Must acquire subjects legally; 4. Must minimize suffering.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What are the APA ethical guidelines for human research?

<ol> <li>Informed consent; 2. Participation must be voluntary; 3. Anonymity/confidentiality; 4. No significant risk; 5. Debriefing afterwards.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Applied Research

A research approach that seeks to solve practical problems and apply findings to real-world situations.

Basic Research

Research aimed at expanding our understanding of fundamental psychological processes, even if it doesn't have immediate practical applications.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one could have predicted it.

Scientific Attitude

A curious and skeptical approach to knowledge, involving humility and a willingness to question one's own ideas.

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Critical Thinking

A systematic way of thinking that involves examining assumptions, evaluating evidence, and drawing logical conclusions.

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Validity

The accuracy of measurements in an experiment, ensuring that they measure what they are intended to measure.

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Reliability

The consistency of results across different experiments, ensuring that the measurements are reliable and reproducible.

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Scientific Method

A systematic process for gaining knowledge, involving observations, theory formation, and refinement.

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Theory

A framework that explains a set of observations, predicts behaviors or events, and provides a structure for organizing knowledge.

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Hypothesis

A testable prediction derived from a theory, focusing on the relationship between variables.

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Operational Definitions

Detailed descriptions of variables that allow for replication of an experiment, ensuring clarity and consistency.

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Replication

Repeating an experiment to validate findings and ensure that results are not due to chance or error.

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Case Study

An in-depth study of a single individual or group to uncover universal principles, but results may be biased by atypical subjects.

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Survey

A method for gathering information from many subjects through questionnaires or interviews, but susceptible to biases such as lying and generalization.

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Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural settings without intervention, providing realistic data but may lack objectivity.

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Field Experiment

An experiment conducted in a real-world setting, offering realistic results but influenced by external factors.

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Sample

A representative segment of the population used in research to minimize bias.

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Random Sampling

A sampling technique where each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, minimizing bias.

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Stratified Sampling

A sampling technique that ensures the sample reflects the population based on specific criteria, enhancing control and representativeness.

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Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index that measures the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables, but it does not prove causation.

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Positive Correlation

Variables change in the same direction, both increasing or both decreasing.

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Negative Correlation

Variables change in opposite directions, one increasing as the other decreases.

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Illusory Correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables that does not actually exist, often due to dramatic events.

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Independent Variable

The manipulated variable in an experiment that is deliberately changed by the researcher.

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Dependent Variable

The measured outcome in an experiment that is dependent on the independent variable.

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Confounding Variable

A variable unrelated to the independent variable but can influence results, potentially causing misleading interpretations.

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Random Assignment

Randomly allocating subjects to different groups in an experiment to minimize bias and ensure groups are comparable.

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Control Group

Groups in an experiment that do not receive the manipulation of the independent variable, serving as a baseline for comparison.

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Experimental Group

Groups in an experiment that receive the manipulation of the independent variable, allowing the researcher to observe its effects.

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Hawthorne Effect

The tendency for subjects to change their behavior simply because they know they are being observed, potentially impacting research outcomes.

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Blind Procedures

Procedures where subjects are unaware of their participation status in an experiment, reducing bias from participants' expectations.

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Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where people experience improvements due to believing they received treatment, even if it was a placebo.

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Measures of Central Tendency

Techniques for summarizing data, including the mean, median, and mode, providing a concise view of the data's center.

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Measures of Variation

Techniques for indicating data spread, including range and standard deviation, showing how much the data varies.

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Normal Distribution

A bell-shaped curve representing a symmetrical distribution where most scores cluster around the mean.

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Skewed Distributions

Distributions that are not symmetrical and have a tail on one side, categorized into positive skew (more low scores) and negative skew (more high scores).

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Type I Error

Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis, concluding there is a significant effect when there isn't one.

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Type II Error

Failing to reject a false null hypothesis, missing a significant effect.

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APA Guidelines for Animal Research

Guidelines specifying humane care, legal acquisition of animals, and minimal suffering for animal research, ensuring ethical treatment.

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APA Guidelines for Human Research

Guidelines requiring informed consent, confidentiality, and debriefing for human research, protecting participants' rights and well-being.

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P-value

A threshold value in statistical analysis; results are considered statistically significant if the p-value is less than .05.

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Study Notes

Research Types

  • Applied vs. Basic Research: Applied research addresses practical problems; basic research seeks to expand psychology's knowledge base.

Cognitive Biases

  • Hindsight Bias: The inclination to feel one could have predicted an outcome after it occurs, also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along" phenomenon.

Scientific Foundations

  • Scientific Attitude: Involves a curious skepticism and humility to question one's own ideas.
  • Critical Thinking: Involves examining assumptions, evaluating evidence, and discerning conclusions.

Research Validity and Reliability

  • Validity: The accuracy of measurements in an experiment.
  • Reliability: The consistency of results across different experiments.

Scientific Methodology

  • Scientific Method: A process involving observation, theory formation, and theory refinement.
  • Theory: A framework that explains phenomena and predicts behaviors/events.
  • Hypothesis: Testable predictions derived from theories focusing on the relationship between variables.

Experimental Foundations

  • Operational Definitions: Detailed descriptions of variables that enable replication.
  • Replication: Repeating experiments to validate findings.

Research Methods

  • Case Study: An in-depth examination of an individual or group to uncover universal principles, though results may be biased by atypical subjects.
  • Survey: A method to gather information from many subjects, susceptible to biases like lying and generalization.
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behavior in natural settings without interference, may lack objectivity.
  • Field Experiment: Conducted in real-world environments, provides realistic results but can be influenced by external factors.

Sampling Techniques

  • Sample: A representative segment of the population aims to minimize bias.
  • Random Sampling: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, reducing bias.
  • Stratified Sampling: Sample represents the population based on specific criteria, enhancing control.

Correlation

  • Correlation Coefficient: A statistical index that measures the relationship between two variables, not confirming causation.
  • Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
  • Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
  • Illusory Correlation: The perception of a nonexistent relationship, often occurring with dramatic events.

Experimental Variables

  • Independent Variable: The manipulated variable that varies independently.
  • Dependent Variable: The measured outcome that depends on the independent variable.
  • Confounding Variable: An irrelevant variable that may influence results.

Experimental Design Considerations

  • Random Assignment: Randomly allocating subjects into different groups to reduce bias.
  • Control and Experimental Conditions: Control groups experience unchanged conditions while experimental groups face manipulations.

Bias and Control Measures

  • Hawthorne Effect: Changes in behavior when subjects know they are being observed.
  • Blind Procedures: In blind studies, subjects are unaware of their participation status to minimize bias.
  • Placebo Effect: The phenomenon where subjects experience improvements due to believing they received treatment.

Statistical Measures

  • Measures of Central Tendency: Techniques for summarizing data, including mean, median, and mode.
  • Measures of Variation: Indicate data spread, including range and standard deviation.

Distribution Types

  • Normal Distribution: Bell-shaped curve indicating a symmetrical distribution.
  • Skewed Distributions: Positively skewed (more low scores) and negatively skewed (more high scores).

Error Types in Research

  • Type I Error: Incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis.
  • Type II Error: Failing to reject a false null hypothesis.

Ethical Guidelines

  • APA Guidelines for Animal Research: Specify humane care, legal acquisition, and minimal suffering.
  • APA Guidelines for Human Research: Require informed consent, confidentiality, and debriefing after participation.

Statistical Significance

  • P-value: A threshold value; results are considered valid if under .05.

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Test your knowledge with these flashcards for AP Psychology Unit 1B. Covering key terms such as applied vs. basic research, hindsight bias, and the scientific attitude, this quiz will help reinforce your understanding of foundational concepts in psychology. Perfect for exam preparation and review.

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