Psychology Hindsight Bias & Self-Concepts

The tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that one would have foreseen it.

Relating information to oneself for enhanced memory

Self-esteem derived from individual achievements and experiences.

Inconsistency between your actual self, ideal self, and ought self.

Overestimating how quickly a task can be completed.

The belief that one has no control over their circumstances, despite having the power to influence them.

Explaining behavior based on positive or negative outcomes; attributing failures to external factors.

Believing personal views represent the majority.

Underestimating others' ability to achieve similar success.

Creating obstacles to explain potential failure or poor performance.

Attributing behavior to personality traits.

Attributing behavior to situational factors.

Overestimating internal causes and underestimating external causes of behavior.

Explaining behaviour by considering (consensus, distinctiveness, consistency) to determine the cause.

Uncomfortable feelings from conflicting beliefs and behaviors.

Seeking information confirming pre-existing beliefs.

Stimulus triggering an association in memory, to make you think about certain things .

Believing something causes the expected behavior in others, confirming your belief.

Attitudes that affect behaviour and judgments unconsciously.

Lack of sufficient evidence or reasoning to persuade someone.

Inferring attitudes from observing one's own behavior.

Altering behavior or beliefs to fit social norms.

Following rules to gain rewards or avoid punishments.

Following orders from an authority figure.

Acknowledging and respecting others' views.

Illusion of a stationary object's movement in a dark room.

Classic study showing that people conform to group opinions on line lengths.

Famous research investigating obedience to authority figures.

Seeing others as less human, reducing empathy.

Conforming to gain approval and avoid rejection.

Conforming because of the perceived correctness of others' actions.

Persuasion through logical arguments and reasoning.

Persuasion through cues like attractiveness or emotion, not logic.

Repeated exposure to a stimulus, like a person, increases liking for that stimulus. The more we see something, the more we tend to like it.

Perceived attractiveness influences how we view others' personalities. People considered attractive are often assumed to have positive traits.

We are drawn to people who share similar attitudes, beliefs, and interests. This is because shared experiences provide validation and create connection.

Relationships are often maintained due to the benefits they bring. These rewards can include social support, companionship, and shared experiences.

We tend to like people who like us. This can create a self-fulfilling prophecy where our belief in being liked leads us to act in ways that make us more likable.

Communicators are more persuasive when they are seen as credible and trustworthy, appear attractive, and have a similar background to the audience. They are also more persuasive when they confirm the audience's beliefs or offer insights that benefit the audience.

The central route to persuasion involves people carefully thinking about and evaluating an argument's logic and evidence. It is used when people are motivated and have the ability to process information.

The peripheral route to persuasion involves people reacting to cues like attractiveness, source credibility, and emotional appeals, without deep thought or analysis. It is used when people are not motivated or lack the ability to process information.

Fearful messages can be effective in persuading people to change their behavior, especially when they offer a clear solution to the fear. However, excessive fear can lead to denial and resistance.

People are more likely to change their opinions or behaviors when they encounter messages that are slightly discrepant from their own views. However, excessive discrepancy can lead to resistance and dismissal.

One-sided arguments, while biased, can be effective when the audience already agrees with the message. They are often used in advertising or political campaigns.

Two-sided arguments present both pros and cons, acknowledging opposing viewpoints. They are more effective with audiences who are aware of opposing arguments and are more likely to be persuaded by a balanced perspective.

Information presented earlier in a message is more persuasive, as it sets the stage for how the audience interprets subsequent information.

In some cases, information presented later in a message can be more persuasive, especially if the audience has a short memory or is distracted.

Passive reception involves forming attitudes through mere exposure to information without active engagement or processing. It can be effective for minor issues or unfamiliar topics.

Active experience-based attitudes are formed through direct engagement and personal involvement with a topic or issue. They are often more resistant to change.

The presence of others can influence a person's performance, leading to enhanced performance on simple tasks, while impairing performance on complex tasks.

Social loafing happens when individuals exert less effort in a group setting, especially when their individual contribution can't be easily identified. This often happens in collaborative tasks.

Social loafing can be prevented by making individual efforts identifiable, making the group goal challenging and involving, offering rewards for higher effort, and fostering a sense of accountability.

A state where individuals in a group lose their sense of self-awareness and personal accountability, leading to a decreased sense of responsibility for their actions.

The factors that contribute to deindividuation include:

1. Group Size: Large crowds make individuals feel anonymous and less identifiable.
2. Physical Anonymity: Concealing one's identity, like wearing a mask, reduces self-consciousness and increases group consciousness.
3. Arousing and Distracting Activities: Excitement or arousal in a group setting can distract from personal values and social norms.
4. Diminished Self-Awareness: People disconnect their behavior from their attitudes, becoming less responsive to their own values.

The phenomenon where group discussions tend to strengthen the initial opinions of the members, leading to more extreme or polarized views.

The two main influences on group polarization are:

1. Informational Influence: Individuals change their opinions based on the information shared and arguments presented during the discussion, believing it to be accurate.
2. Normative Influence: Individuals conform to the expectations or behaviors of the group to be liked and accepted. This includes the phenomenon of groupthink, where the desire for group harmony can suppress dissent.

The tendency to perceive differences between groups as larger than they actually are, especially when comparing groups.

A pre-existing negative judgment or attitude towards a specific group of people.

A belief about the personal attributes of a group of people, often overgeneralized and based on assumptions.

Unjustified negative behavior directed towards a person or group based on their membership in a particular group.

The sources of prejudice include:

1. Social Inequalities: Unequal status and power dynamics between groups can create prejudice, with dominant groups often holding negative views of less powerful groups.
2. Socialization: Cultural norms, upbringing, and social learning can influence attitudes toward different groups, leading to the development of prejudices.
3. Conformity: Individuals conforming to the opinions and behaviors of others, especially in groups where prejudice is prevalent, can increase prejudice.

Discrimination has a harmful impact on individuals and groups, often leading to negative self-fulfilling prophecies. This means that discrimination can create conditions that confirm the negative stereotypes that were used to justify it in the first place.

1. Hostile Aggression: Aggression driven by anger, with the primary goal of inflicting harm on the target.
2. Instrumental Aggression: Aggression used as a means to achieve a specific goal, often without anger or hostility.

The influences on aggression include:

1. Genetic Influences: Research suggests that a predisposition towards aggressive behavior may be partially inherited.
2. Biochemical Influences: Hormones and neurochemicals can influence aggression, for example alcohol consumption can lower inhibitions and increase aggression.
3. Frustration-Aggression Theory: Frustration, the blocking of a goal-directed behavior, can trigger aggression.
4. Relative Deprivation: Feeling deprived relative to others can lead to anger and aggression.
5. Aggression as Learned Social Behavior: Observing and imitating aggressive behavior can lead to an increased likelihood of aggression.

A classic experiment that demonstrated the power of observational learning in aggression. Children who observed an adult aggressively interacting with a Bobo doll were more likely to imitate this behavior.

Various strategies can be employed to reduce aggression:

1. Catharsis: This theory suggests that releasing aggression through physical activity or other expressions can reduce aggressive tendencies. However, research has found that catharsis can actually increase aggression.
2. Punishment: While punishment can sometimes deter aggression, it can also lead to further aggression.
3. Withdrawal or Rewards: Teaching children to avoid aggressive situations and rewarding prosocial behavior are more effective strategies for reducing aggression.

People engage in social interactions to minimize costs and maximize rewards. This applies also to helping behavior, where individuals may be motivated by internal or external rewards.

1. Internal Rewards: Feelings of satisfaction, pleasure, or a sense of purpose gained from helping others.
2. External Rewards: Tangible benefits, such as recognition, money, or social approval, received for helping others.

Larger groups increase deindividuation because individuals feel more anonymous and less identifiable, reducing self-consciousness and increasing group consciousness.

Concealing one's identity, like wearing a mask, can contribute to deindividuation by reducing self-awareness and increasing group consciousness.

Exciting or arousing activities in a group setting can distract individuals from their personal values and social norms, increasing the likelihood of deindividuation.

Deindividuation can lead to a disconnect between people's behavior and their personal values, making them less responsive to their own morals.

Factors that contribute to the development of prejudice include social inequalities, socialization, and conformity.

Aggression driven by anger and fueled by the intent to inflict harm on a target.

Aggression used as a means to achieve a specific goal, often without anger or hostility.

Frustration, the blocking of a goal-directed behavior, can trigger aggression.