Psychology Hindsight Bias & Self-Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of the self-reference effect?

  • How we forget information
  • How society shapes our views
  • How we relate to concepts to enhance memory (correct)
  • How emotions affect decision-making

    • The bottom-up approach to self-esteem is primarily influenced by societal standards and external factors.

    False

    What psychological phenomenon refers to the tendency to overestimate the time needed to complete tasks?

    planning fallacy

    The ____ self refers to how we see ourselves currently, while the ideal self pertains to who we aspire to be.

    <p>actual</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms to their definitions:

    <p>Locus of control = Belief about the extent of control over life events Impact bias = Overestimation of emotional reactions to future events Self-efficacy = Belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations Dual attitudes = Simultaneous positive and negative evaluations of an attitude object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological phenomenon explains the increased liking of individuals through repeated exposure?

    <p>Mere exposure effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Physical attractiveness is perceived as directly linked to social desirability traits.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three components of love according to Sternberg’s conception?

    <p>Passion, intimacy, commitment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The theory that states 'Arousal x its label = emotion' is known as the ______ theory of emotion.

    <p>two factor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their related explanations:

    <p>Mere exposure effect = Increased liking through repeated interaction Contrast effect = Perception of attractiveness diminished by excessive porn consumption Reciprocal liking = Liking those who show affection in return Two factor theory of emotion = Emotion results from arousal and cognitive labeling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is cognitive dissonance primarily related to?

    <p>Insufficient justification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Compliance requires a change in attitudes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What experimental method did Asch use to study conformity?

    <p>Line comparison with confederates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ technique involves making a large request first, then following it with a smaller request.

    <p>door-in-the-face</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following concepts with their definitions:

    <p>Conformity = Change in behavior to align with a group Obedience = Submission to authority figures Compliance = Following rules without attitude change Acceptance = Willingness to recognize others' beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a factor that increases obedience?

    <p>Personal connection to the victim</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A small group of 3-5 people is likely to conform more than a single large group.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the central route to persuasion characterized by?

    <p>Deep thinking and critical consideration of arguments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ effect can occur when the influence of credibility fades over time.

    <p>sleeper</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following compliance tactics with their descriptions:

    <p>Foot-in-the-door = Start with a small request before a larger one Lowball = Present an attractive offer then increase the price Ingratiation = Using flattery or similarity to gain favor Playing hard to get = Presenting something as scarce</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What leads to normative influence in social situations?

    <p>Desire to gain social approval</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Informational influence results from a desire to maintain social relationships.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are two characteristics of the peripheral route to persuasion?

    <p>Low involvement and focus on incidental cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the phenomenon of ______________, social pressure leads individuals to assert their uniqueness.

    <p>reactance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following strategies can increase perceived expertise?

    <p>Presenting information confidently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Attractiveness does not play a significant role in persuasive communication.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does positive emotion have on persuasion?

    <p>It enhances positive thinking and increases the likelihood of persuasion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fear-provoking messages are more effective in changing behaviors by engaging in __________.

    <p>detection behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of argument with its effectiveness:

    <p>One-sided arguments = Most effective with an audience that agrees Two-sided arguments = More effective with informed audiences Primary effect = Earlier information is often more persuasive Recency effect = Later information can be persuasive sometimes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes social facilitation?

    <p>Both B and C are correct</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Crowding does not affect an individual's physiological state.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the self-serving bias primarily relate to?

    <p>Attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is social loafing?

    <p>The tendency of individuals to exert less effort when working in a group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    False consensus effect involves individuals believing their views are not commonly shared.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is learned helplessness?

    <p>A condition in which individuals believe they have no control over their circumstances.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Attitude inoculation involves strengthening existing attitudes by exposing individuals to __________.

    <p>counterarguments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which demographic factor influences people's social and political attitudes?

    <p>Age</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ effect is when an individual underestimates the number of others achieving similar success.

    <p>false uniqueness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Self-handicapping = Creating excuses to avoid personal failure responsibility Cognitive dissonance = Mental conflict arising from contradictory beliefs and behaviors Priming = Stimulus that triggers associations in memory Evil acts and attitudes = Behavioral engagement causing shifts in personal beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    High self-esteem individuals are more easily persuaded than low self-esteem individuals.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)?

    <p>Underestimating situational influences while overestimating dispositional influences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the two-step flow of communication?

    <p>A process where media influences opinion leaders who then inform the final audience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Passive reception is more effective on __________ issues.

    <p>minor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Overconfidence phenomenon means accurately estimating the accuracy of one's beliefs.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of impression management in behavior change?

    <p>It involves seeking social validation and the need to be liked.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of communication medium with its effectiveness:

    <p>Videotapes = More persuasive for easy messages Written communication = More persuasive for difficult messages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The principle that states one’s average behavior across different situations determines their attitude is known as __________.

    <p>principle of aggregation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a component of attributional styles?

    <p>Overconfidence bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the attribution styles with their characteristics:

    <p>High consensus = More likely external attribution Low consistency = More likely external attribution High distinctiveness = More likely external attribution Low consensus = More likely internal attribution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rosy retrospection refers to recalling negative experiences more predominantly.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of misinformation on memory?

    <p>It leads to the incorporation of false information into one's memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    __________ is a subtle form of seeking validation while appearing modest.

    <p>False modesty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors contributes to deindividuation in a group context?

    <p>Physical anonymity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Group polarization occurs when group discussions result in weaker opinions among members.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is social exchange theory primarily concerned with?

    <p>Maximizing rewards and minimizing costs in social interactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prejudice can be defined as a preexisted negative _____ towards a group.

    <p>judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of aggression with their descriptions:

    <p>Hostile aggression = Driven by anger Instrumental aggression = Used to achieve a specific goal Frustration-aggression theory = Frustration leads to aggression Relative deprivation = Anger from perceived inequality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes normative influence?

    <p>Conforming to group expectations to be accepted</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Genetic influences on aggression suggest that aggression is entirely learned behavior.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of the bystander effect on helping behaviors?

    <p>It decreases the likelihood of helping.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Aggression that is primarily driven by the intention to achieve a goal is called _____ aggression.

    <p>instrumental</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the reciprocity norm suggest?

    <p>People will help those who have helped them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the type of influence with its example:

    <p>Informational influence = Believing in accurate information after discussion Normative influence = Conforming for group acceptance Groupthink = Suppressing dissent for harmony Subtyping = Creating exceptions for individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Empathy increases the likelihood of individuals helping others.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of arousing and distracting activities that can lead to deindividuation?

    <p>Participating in a loud concert.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People are more likely to help in an emergency if they perceive it as their _____ to intervene.

    <p>responsibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Hindsight Bias

    • The tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen an outcome.

    Self-Reference Effect

    • Relating new information to personal experiences enhances memory.

    Self-Schema

    • Cognitive structures that help us understand ourselves and shape our expectations.

    Possible Selves

    • Our conceptions of what we might become (desires & fears).

    Self-Esteem

    • Bottom-up approach: Driven by personal achievements.
    • Top-down approach: Influenced by societal standards and external factors.
    • Inconsistent "actual self" and "ideal self," leads to self-discrepancy.

    Self-Discrepancy

    • The difference between our actual self, ideal self, and ought self can cause guilt, anxiety or feelings of failure if standards aren't met.

    Self-Comparisons

    • Taking pleasure in others' failures is a private phenomenon.

    Looking-Glass Self

    • We perceive ourselves through the eyes of others.

    Individualism vs Collectivism

    • Individualism is associated with Western cultures, while collectivism is found in societies that prioritize group harmony.

    Planning Fallacy

    • An overestimation of how quickly tasks are completed.

    Impact Bias

    • Overestimation of the intensity and duration of emotional responses to future events.
    • Underestimation of resilience.
    • Dual attitudes (implicit and explicit).
    • Self-efficacy.
    • Locus of Control (degree of control over life; attributional styles of interpreting causes of events).
    • Learned helplessness & resignation (belief in lack of control).

    Self-Serving Bias

    • Attributing successes to internal factors (traits) and failures to external factors (situations).

    False Consensus Effect

    • Overestimating the extent to which others share one's beliefs or behaviours.

    False Uniqueness Effect

    • Underestimating the number of others who share one's successes.

    Self-Handicapping

    • Creating obstacles or excuses to protect one's self-esteem from potential failure or poor performance.

    Predictors of Low Self-Esteem

    • Internalized and externalized problems, such as depression or substance abuse.

    Secure Self-Esteem

    • Less defensive when self-esteem is threatened.

    Maladaptive Consequences of Threats to Self-Esteem

    • Blaming others to protect one's self-esteem, protects from depression & buffers anxiety.

    False Modesty

    • Subtle seeking of validation/recognition while appearing modest.

    Implicit Attitudes

    • Attitudes that predict behavior and judgments.

    Attitudes Predict Behavior

    • Principle of Aggregation: Attitudes predict average behavior across situations, not a single behavior.

    Behavior Affects Attitudes

    • Role-playing
    • Saying becomes believing (internalizing expressed attitudes).
    • Evil acts and attitudes (can influence beliefs)
    • Impression Management (gaining approval)
    • Self-Justification (resolving inconsistencies).
    • Cognitive Dissonance (mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs)

    Insufficient Justification

    • Not enough evidence to convince or change one's view.

    Self-Perception Theory

    • Observing one's own behavior to infer attitudes.

    Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

    • Experiment illustrating insufficient justification and cognitive dissonance.

    Conformity

    • Changing one's behavior or beliefs to match social norms or expectations.

    Compliance

    • Following rules or laws for rewards/avoiding punishments.

    Obedience

    • Submitting to direct instructions from an authority figure.

    Acceptance

    • Acknowledging/recognizing the beliefs or behaviors of others.

    Asch's Line Experiment

    • Demonstrating the power of conformity.

    Milgram's Obedience Experiment

    • Illustrating obedience to authority.

    Factors Influencing Obedience

    • Dehumanization/Moral disengagement, Legitimacy of Authority, and Institutional Authority.

    Factors Influencing Conformity

    • Group size, Unanimity, Cohesion, Status, Public Response, and Prior Commitment.

    Reasons for Conformity

    • Normative influence (social approval) & Informational influence (seeking accuracy).

    Who is more likely to conform?

    • Personality and cultural influences (like collectivistic vs. individualistic cultures).

    Tactics of Compliance

    • Ingratiation (gaining favor), Foot-in-the-Door, Lowball, Door-in-the-Face, Playing Hard to Get, and Deadline Technique, and reactance.

    Resistance to Social Pressure

    • Reactance (rebellion when autonomy threatened) and asserting uniqueness.

    Persuasion

    • Process of inducing changes in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

    Central Route to Persuasion

    • Deeper, more critical thinking about message content, enduring attitude change.

    Peripheral Route to Persuasion

    • Less attention to detail, relying on superficial cues, less durable attitude change.

    Characteristics of a Persuasive Communicator

    • Credibility (expertise & trustworthiness)
    • Attractiveness & Liking.

    Message Content

    • Reason vs. emotion, initial audience attitudes, good feelings, fear appeals, discrepancy, one-sided vs. two-sided arguments, primary & recency effects.

    Active Experience-Based Attitudes

    • Formed through direct engagement.

    Passive Reception Attitudes

    • Formed through exposure to information without engagement, more effective for less significant issues.

    Two-Step Flow of Communication

    • Media influences opinion leaders, who then influence the broader audience.

    Attitude Inoculation

    • Strengthening existing attitudes by exposing them to counterarguments beforehand.

    Social Facilitation

    • Improved performance on simple tasks with others present; may diminish performance on complex tasks in others' presence.

    Social Loafing

    • Exerting less effort when working in a group than when working alone.

    Deindividuation

    • Losing self-awareness and accountability in a group setting, loss of self-control, abandon normal restraints.

    Factors Influencing Deindividuation

    • Group size, physical anonymity, and arousing/distracting activities, diminished self-awareness.

    Group Polarization

    • Group discussions tend to make opinions stronger and more extreme.

    Groupthink

    • When group harmony is prioritized over critical evaluation of ideas.

    Prejudice

    • Negative judgment or attitude.

    Stereotypes

    • Beliefs about personal attributes of groups.

    Discrimination

    • Unjustified negative behavior.

    Sexism

    • Benevolent and hostile sexism.

    Sources of Prejudice

    • Social inequalities, socialization (ethnocentrism), conformity, institutional support.

    Outgroup Homogeneity Bias

    • Overestimating the similarities among members of an outgroup, and underestimating differences within it.

    Hostile Aggression

    • Anger-based aggression.

    Instrumental Aggression

    • Aggression to achieve a goal.

    Influences on Aggression

    • Genetic factors, biochemical (alcohol), frustration-aggression theory, relative deprivation, observational learning, pain, heat, attacks, arousal, aversive cues, media influences, and group influences.

    Social Exchange Theory

    • Engaging in social interactions to maximize rewards (like good feelings, better image) and minimize costs.

    Social Norms

    • Reciprocity, social responsibility.

    Genuine Altruism

    • Selfless concern for others, distress over suffering.

    Factors Affecting Helping Behavior

    • Number of bystanders (bystander effect), similarity, time pressure, prosocial models, empathy, positive personality, gender, and religious faith.

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    Description

    Explore key psychological concepts including hindsight bias, self-reference effect, and self-discrepancy. This quiz examines how our perceptions and societal influences shape our self-esteem and identity. Test your understanding of these concepts and their implications on personal growth.

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