Psychology Chapter 29-32 Anxiety Disorders Overview

Anxiety Disorders

• Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) is characterized by excessive worry about a range of events for more than six months.
• Individuals with GAD anticipate disastrous outcomes and find it difficult to control their worry.
• Common symptoms of GAD include muscle tension, difficulty concentrating or sleeping, and feeling restless, fatigued, or irritable.
• Panic attacks are overwhelming surges of anxiety that peak within minutes and can be associated with several disorders.
• Panic disorder is characterized by repeated, uncontrollable and unpredictable panic attacks.
• Agoraphobia involves intense fear of being unable to escape settings that cause feelings of panic or being trapped.
• Individuals with agoraphobia avoid such settings and are often afraid to leave their home.
• Many individuals with agoraphobia experience panic attacks and/or have panic disorder.
• Social anxiety disorder is characterized by intense fear of interpersonal rejection or humiliation.
• Individuals with social anxiety disorder become extremely anxious in social settings and may avoid these situations.
• Specific phobia is characterized by excessive and irrational fear of a specific situation or animal/object.
• Some specific phobias are hypothesized to result from the classical conditioning of fear.

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

• Major depressive disorder (MDD) is characterized by an ongoing period of depressed mood and/or a lack of pleasure or loss of interest in activities.
• Other symptoms of MDD include changes in appetite, sleep, fatigue, low self-worth or guilt, cognitive difficulties, and/or thoughts about death or suicidal ideation.
• Most people with MDD experience recurrent depressive episodes.

Schizophrenia

• Schizophrenia is a severe psychological disorder characterized by a loss of contact with reality.
• Diagnosis of Schizophrenia requires the presence of several characteristic symptoms for one month or longer, at least one of which must be hallucinations, delusions, or disorganized speech.
• Schizophrenia typically involves positive symptoms (pathological excesses) and negative symptoms (pathological deficits).
• Delusions are fixed, false beliefs maintained despite evidence to the contrary.
• Hallucinations are false perceptual experiences in the absence of sensory stimulation.
• Many people with schizophrenia also experience psychomotor symptoms.

Dissociative Disorders

• Dissociative disorders involve disruptions to memory, consciousness, and/or identity that stem from psychological origins.
• Dissociative amnesia is a condition in which someone might forget important autobiographical details, such as their name or marital status.
• A dissociative fugue is a rare condition in which individuals with dissociative amnesia travel from their home and assume a new identity.

The Biological Underpinnings of Depression

• Serotonin and norepinephrine have been implicated in depressive disorders.
• Decreases in these neurotransmitters cause symptoms of depression.
• Medications that elevate levels of serotonin and/or norepinephrine alleviate depressive symptoms for many individuals.
• The monoamine hypothesis attributes depression to a deficit in central serotonergic and/or noradrenergic activity.

The Biological Underpinnings of Parkinson's Disease

• Parkinson's disease (PD) involves the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN).
• The SN projects axons to the basal ganglia, which plays an important role in voluntary movements.
• The degeneration of the SN in PD impairs dopaminergic modulation, which causes the motor symptoms of the disease.
• Some medications used to treat PD are dopamine agonists.
• Another treatment for PD, deep-brain stimulation (DBS) involves implanting a device in the brain that sends electrical impulses to a specific area.

Major Psychotherapeutic Approaches

• Humanistic psychotherapy is a person- or client-centered approach that aims to provide a supportive environment in which clients can grow and change.
• Humanistic therapists demonstrate unconditional positive regard, empathy, and active listening.
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is designed to help individuals replace negative thoughts and behaviors with healthier thoughts and behaviors.

Sociology and Society

• Sociology is the scientific study of society, patterns of relationships and activities developed by a group of people who share a common way of life.
• Sociologists examine how humans organize social systems and create culture.
• Sociologists rely on empirical evidence to develop and support their explanations.

Microsociology and Macrosociology

• Microsociology focuses on the interactions between individuals and small groups.
• Macrosociology focuses on large-scale social structures and social systems.

Functionalist Theory

• Functionalist theory views society as a complex system of interrelated parts, each with its own function.
• Social institutions, such as healthcare and education, serve different purposes to support society's overall order and balance.
• Manifest functions are expected or planned purposes of a social institution.
• Latent functions are unintended consequences of a social institution.

Conflict Theory

• Conflict theory views society as a hierarchy of competing groups.
• It argues that tension arises when resources are unequally distributed throughout society.
• It was influenced by Karl Marx, who wrote about societal changes resulting from the capitalist revolution.
• Bourgeoise refers to the owning class.
• Proletariat refers to the working class.
• Conflict theory asserts that power and privilege are incorporated within social institutions through policies and laws.

Obsessive-compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• OCD is characterized by obsessions and / or compulsions
• Obsessions are intrusive, distressing thoughts
• Compulsions are repetitive behaviors or rituals
• Compulsions often attempt to neutralize obsessions
• To be diagnosed with OCD, obsessions and/or compulsions must occupy significant time or interfere with daily functioning

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• PTSD develops following exposure to a traumatic event
• Traumatic events can be events resulting in, or nearly resulting in, death or serious injury
• Symptoms include re-experiencing the traumatic event, negative thoughts and moods, avoidance of trauma triggers, and hyperarousal
• Symptoms must be present for at least one month to be diagnosed with PTSD

Bipolar I Disorder

• Bipolar I disorder is characterized by mania
• Mania involves abnormally elevated or irritable mood and increased energy
• During a manic episode, individuals may be talkative, distractible, overconfident, or act impulsively
• Individuals with bipolar I disorder may experience reduced need for sleep
• Symptoms of manic episodes must require hospitalization or persist for at least one week and have a significant impact on functioning
• Individuals with Bipolar I disorder also typically experience major depressive episodes

Depressive Disorders

• Depressive disorders are defined by enduring periods of sadness that affect daily functioning

Humanistic Psychotherapy

• Humanistic psychotherapy is a person-centered approach
• It aims to provide a supportive environment for personal growth
• Humanistic therapists demonstrate unconditional positive regard, empathy, and active listening
• Unconditional positive regard means offering acceptance regardless of behavior
• Empathy means seeing the world from the client’s perspective
• Active listening means summarizing a client's statements and asking clarifying questions

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

• CBT is designed to replace negative thoughts and behaviors with healthier ones

Sociology

• Sociology is the systematic study of society
• Society refers to patterns of relationships and activities shared by a group of people
• Sociologists examine how humans organize social systems (eg, politics, criminal justice) and create culture
• Sociologists rely on empirical evidence to develop and support their explanations

Microsociology

• Microsociology examines small-scale social phenomena and interpersonal interactions
• Microsociology views society from a microscopic perspective
• Microsociology focuses on the importance of individual actions in shaping society
• Example: A microsociology approach could focus on communication barriers between physicians and patients to understand the impact of interaction on health outcomes

Macrosociology

• Macrosociology examines society-wide institutions and large-scale events
• Macrosociology views society from a macro-level perspective
• Macrosociology focuses on broad patterns, trends, and demographics within the organization of society
• Example: A macrosociology approach might focus on how patterns of unemployment and poverty impact the rise of obesity rates

Functionalism

• Functionalism is a macrosociological theory
• Functionalism compares society to a biological organism
• Functionalism posits that structures of society work together to maintain stability and order

Symbolic Interactionism

• Symbolic interactionism is a microsociological theory
• Symbolic interactionism views society as the product of social interactions
• Symbols are any image, object, gesture, or sound that conveys meaning
• Symbolic meanings are determined by context and vary across cultures
• Symbolic meanings are not permanent
• Key principles of symbolic interactionism:
  • Symbolic meaning is created in interaction
  • Individuals act based on interpreted meaning of symbols
  • Differences in symbolic interpretations result in different actions

Social Constructionism

• Social constructionism is a microsociological theory
• Social constructionism focuses on how societies create ideas and interpret the meaning of reality
• A social construct is an idea that has been created and supported by a specific social group
• Social constructionism proposes that elements of social reality, such as common practices, social systems, and identities, are social constructs
• Objects, behaviors, and identity categories have meaning based on social agreement

Exchange-Rational Choice

• This is a combination of two theories:
  • Rational Choice Theory: Proposes that humans are self-interested and make rational decisions by analyzing all possible options to maximize gain and minimize loss
  • Social Exchange Theory: Applies rational choice theory to interactions and relationships with others; proposes that interactions are based on calculations of benefits and costs

Feminist Theory

• Feminist theory describes a variety of theories aimed at explaining power differences based on gender
• Feminist theories argue that gender inequality is rooted in the organization of society into a patriarchal system
• Current feminist theory attempts to address how the patriarchal structure of society negatively impacts all individuals, regardless of gender identity
• Feminist theories include both macro- and micro-level approaches
  • Macro-level feminist theory considers how large-scale social processes maintain gender inequality