Antiseptics and Disinfectants
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of an antiseptic?

  • To kill microbes on non-living objects
  • To enhance the growth of microbes
  • To inhibit the growth of microbes on living tissue (correct)
  • To increase the reproduction of microbes

    • What is the term used to describe the area of no growth around a disk saturated with an antimicrobial agent?

  • Microbial growth zone
  • Antimicrobial zone
  • Zone of growth
  • Zone of inhibition (correct)

    • Which of the following variables can affect the zone size of an antimicrobial agent?

  • Incubation time and temperature only
  • The amount of microbial growth originally on the plate only
  • Incubation time, temperature, and the amount of microbial growth originally on the plate
  • All of the above, including the rate at which the agent diffuses through the medium (correct)

    • What is the purpose of creating a 'bacterial lawn' in the experiment?

    <p>To spread the microorganisms evenly over the agar surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe chemicals that are designed to kill microbes?

    <p>Microcidal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using sterile paper disks in the experiment?

    <p>To saturate the agent and then place it on the agar plate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe chemicals that prevent microbial growth?

    <p>Microstatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using a metric ruler in the experiment?

    <p>To measure the zone of inhibition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between a disinfectant and an antiseptic?

    <p>A disinfectant is used on non-living objects, while an antiseptic is used on living tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of incubating the agar plate in the experiment?

    <p>To allow the microorganisms to grow and form a visible zone of inhibition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using multiple types of microorganisms in the experiment?

    <p>To test the effectiveness of different antimicrobial agents against different types of microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the 1:1 ratio of lysol to water in the experiment?

    <p>It increases the effectiveness of lysol against microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would happen if the sterile paper disks were not used in the experiment?

    <p>The results of the experiment would be inaccurate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to use a bacterial lawn in the experiment?

    <p>To allow for a uniform growth of microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would happen if the agar plate was not incubated at the correct temperature?

    <p>The results of the experiment would be inaccurate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for periodically changing the hand soap used in the operating room?

    <p>To reduce the risk of microbial resistance to the soap</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between an antibiotic and an antiseptic?

    <p>Antibiotics are used to treat internal infections, while antiseptics are used to treat external infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is hexachlorophene now available only by prescription for concentrations greater than 3%?

    <p>It can cause the development of microbial resistance if used excessively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What would be the most effective way to address the issue of microbial infections on cruise ships?

    <p>Implementing strict hand hygiene protocols for all passengers and crew</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary objective of the Kirby-Bauer method?

    <p>To test the effectiveness of antibiotics against a range of microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for using antibiotic discs in the Kirby-Bauer method?

    <p>To test the effectiveness of antibiotics against a range of microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using Mueller-Hinton agar in the Kirby-Bauer method?

    <p>To allow for rapid diffusion of antibiotics through the medium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a zone of inhibition with a diameter equal to or less than the inner circle indicate?

    <p>The antibiotic is resistant to the bacterial growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of antibiotics?

    <p>To inhibit the growth of other organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the effectiveness of an antibiotic in the Kirby-Bauer method?

    <p>The size of the zone of inhibition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe antibiotics that inhibit bacterial growth?

    <p>Natural products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of comparing the zone sizes to values on standardized tables?

    <p>To determine the effectiveness of the antibiotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does ultraviolet light inhibit the growth of microorganisms?

    <p>Ultraviolet light inhibits the growth of microorganisms by causing the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA, distorting DNA structure, and thereby inhibiting DNA replication and interfering with subsequent cell division.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of dividing the TSA plate into two halves in the experiment?

    <p>The purpose is to have one half exposed to ultraviolet light and the other half unexposed, to compare the effect of UV light on microbial growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of using different types of microorganisms in the experiment?

    <p>Using different types of microorganisms allows for the comparison of their sensitivity to ultraviolet light and provides a more comprehensive understanding of its effectiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to wear protective eyewear during the experiment?

    <p>It is important to wear protective eyewear during the experiment to protect one's eyes from the harmful effects of ultraviolet light.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of creating a bacterial lawn on the TSA plate?

    <p>The purpose of creating a bacterial lawn is to create a uniform layer of microbial growth, allowing for a more accurate comparison of the effect of ultraviolet light on microbial growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the duration of exposure to ultraviolet light affect microbial growth?

    <p>The longer the duration of exposure to ultraviolet light, the greater the inhibition of microbial growth, as more pyrimidine dimers are formed in the DNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of using nutrient agar plates in the experiment?

    <p>Nutrient agar plates provide a medium for microbial growth, allowing for the observation of the effect of ultraviolet light on microbial growth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does ultraviolet light sterilize surgical instruments and tabletops?

    <p>Ultraviolet light sterilizes surgical instruments and tabletops by inhibiting microbial growth through the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA, thereby preventing the replication of microorganisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which ultraviolet light inhibits microbial growth?

    <p>Formation of pyrimidine dimers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following microorganisms would be most affected by exposure to ultraviolet light?

    <p>Serratia marcescens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of using both pasteurization and ultraviolet light in milk treatment?

    <p>Enhanced microbiological safety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is ultraviolet light commonly used for sterilization of inanimate objects?

    <p>It does not require heat or chemicals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for exposing the plates to different durations of ultraviolet light?

    <p>To evaluate the dose-response effect of UV light on microbial growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of creating a 'bacterial lawn' in the experiment?

    <p>To create a uniform layer of microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the 'unexposed' and 'exposed' sides of the plates?

    <p>The presence or absence of UV light exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of drawing labeled diagrams of the plates?

    <p>To record the number and color of colonies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to Serratia marcescens when exposed to ultraviolet light, besides a decrease in the number of cells?

    <p>Formation of pyrimidine dimers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is Bacillus subtilis less affected by exposure to ultraviolet light compared to Escherichia coli?

    <p>Bacillus subtilis has a more efficient repair mechanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which ultraviolet light inhibits microbial growth?

    <p>Formation of pyrimidine dimers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a benefit of using both pasteurization and ultraviolet light in milk treatment?

    <p>Increased shelf life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is ultraviolet light used on inanimate objects to kill microbes?

    <p>To reduce the risk of infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common application of ultraviolet light in sterilization?

    <p>Surgical instrument sterilization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the duration of exposure to ultraviolet light affect microbial growth?

    <p>Longer exposure inhibits microbial growth more effectively</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the formation of thymine-thymine dimers in DNA, resulting from exposure to ultraviolet light?

    <p>Pyrimidine dimer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of lysozyme in inhibiting bacterial growth?

    <p>By degrading peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is lysozyme more effective against Gram-positive bacteria than Gram-negative bacteria?

    <p>Because Gram-negative bacteria have an outer membrane that prevents lysozyme from reaching the peptidoglycan layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of incubating the agar plates at 37°C for 24-48 hours in the lysozyme activity experiment?

    <p>To allow for the growth of microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of using multiple types of microorganisms in the lysozyme activity experiment?

    <p>To compare the effectiveness of lysozyme against different types of bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of lysozyme in the human immune system?

    <p>To provide nonspecific resistance against bacterial infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the correlation between the zone of inhibition and the effectiveness of lysozyme in inhibiting bacterial growth?

    <p>A larger zone of inhibition indicates a higher effectiveness of lysozyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using sterile paper disks in the lysozyme activity experiment?

    <p>To deliver a precise amount of lysozyme to the agar surface</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of using tryptic soy agar plates in the lysozyme activity experiment?

    <p>To provide a nutrient-rich medium for bacterial growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can cause signs and symptoms of illness?

    <p>Both pathogenic infections and a response by our immune system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do medical professionals rely heavily on to determine the cause of an ailment?

    <p>Only analysis of signs and symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does the immune system release pyrogens?

    <p>To create a less-than-favorable environment for the pathogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are direct and indirect diagnostic methods necessary?

    <p>Because few diseases produce truly unique symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the immune system releasing pyrogens?

    <p>A rise in body temperature, making us feel sick</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the immune system responds to a pathogen?

    <p>It creates a less-than-favorable environment for the pathogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Disinfectants and Antiseptics

    • Disinfectants and antiseptics are antimicrobial agents used to inhibit the growth of or kill microorganisms.
    • Disinfectants are used on non-living objects, while antiseptics are used on living tissue.

    Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants

    • Effectiveness can be determined by using a paper disk saturated with an agent on an agar plate inoculated with microorganisms.
    • A zone of inhibition (area of no growth) will appear around the disk if the agent is successful.
    • Zone sizes are measured in millimeters (mm) and can be affected by incubation time, temperature, and other variables.

    Materials

    • Broth cultures of 5 microorganisms: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, and Bacillus subtilis.
    • 5 nutrient agar plates (TSA plates).
    • Agents to be tested: mouthwash, betadine, lysol (diluted 1:1), and optional agents (garlic extract, grapefruit-seed extract, zinc, or rubbing alcohol).

    Procedure

    • Create a "bacterial lawn" by spreading microorganism cultures over the entire agar surface.
    • Repeat the process for each of the 5 bacterial cultures.
    • Divide each agar plate into four distinct regions using lines on the bottom.

    Disinfectants and Antiseptics

    • Disinfectants and antiseptics are antimicrobial agents used to inhibit the growth of or kill microorganisms.
    • Disinfectants are used on non-living objects, while antiseptics are used on living tissue.

    Effectiveness of Antiseptics and Disinfectants

    • Effectiveness can be determined by using a paper disk saturated with an agent on an agar plate inoculated with microorganisms.
    • A zone of inhibition (area of no growth) will appear around the disk if the agent is successful.
    • Zone sizes are measured in millimeters (mm) and can be affected by incubation time, temperature, and other variables.

    Materials

    • Broth cultures of 5 microorganisms: Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia marcescens, and Bacillus subtilis.
    • 5 nutrient agar plates (TSA plates).
    • Agents to be tested: mouthwash, betadine, lysol (diluted 1:1), and optional agents (garlic extract, grapefruit-seed extract, zinc, or rubbing alcohol).

    Procedure

    • Create a "bacterial lawn" by spreading microorganism cultures over the entire agar surface.
    • Repeat the process for each of the 5 bacterial cultures.
    • Divide each agar plate into four distinct regions using lines on the bottom.

    Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing

    • Ampicillin (AM) testing for Gram-negative microorganisms and Enterococci: 10 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤11), intermediate (12-13), and resistant (≥14)
    • Ampicillin (AM) testing for Staphylococci and penicillin G-susceptible microorganisms: 10 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤20), intermediate (21-28), and resistant (≥29)
    • Ampicillin (AM) testing for Haemophilus species: 10 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤19), intermediate (20-22), and resistant (≥23)

    Bacitracin Susceptibility Testing

    • Bacitracin testing: 10 units, with interpretation as sensitive (≤8), intermediate (9-12), and resistant (≥13)

    Carbenicillin Susceptibility Testing

    • Carbenicillin testing: 50 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤17), intermediate (18-23), and resistant (≥24)

    Cephalotin Susceptibility Testing

    • Cephalotin (CR) testing for susceptibility to cephalotin, cephaloridine, and cephalexin: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤14), intermediate (15-17), and resistant (≥18)
    • Cephalothin testing for susceptibility to cephaloglycin: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤14), intermediate (15-17), and resistant (≥18)

    Chloramphenicol Susceptibility Testing

    • Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetic) testing: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤12), intermediate (13-17), and resistant (≥18)

    Clindamycin Susceptibility Testing

    • Clindamycin (CC) testing: 2 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤14), intermediate (15-16), and resistant (≥17)
    • Clindamycin (CC) testing: 2 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤16), intermediate (17-20), and resistant (≥21)

    Erythromycin Susceptibility Testing

    • Erythromycin (GM) testing: 15 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤13), intermediate (14-17), and resistant (≥18)

    Gentamicin Susceptibility Testing

    • Gentamicin (GM) testing: 10 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤12), intermediate (13-14), and resistant (≥15)

    Kanamycin Susceptibility Testing

    • Kanamycin (ME) testing: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤13), intermediate (14-17), and resistant (≥18)

    Methicillin Susceptibility Testing

    • Methicillin (ME) testing: 5 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤9), intermediate (10-13), and resistant (≥14)

    Neomycin Susceptibility Testing

    • Neomycin (NB) testing: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤12), intermediate (13-16), and resistant (≥17)

    Novobiocin Susceptibility Testing

    • Novobiocin (NB) testing: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤17), intermediate (18-21), and resistant (≥22)

    Oleandomycin Susceptibility Testing

    • Oleandomycin (OL) testing: 15 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤11), intermediate (12-16), and resistant (≥17)

    Penicillin G Susceptibility Testing

    • Penicillin G testing for Staphylococci: 10 units, with interpretation as sensitive (≤20), intermediate (21-24), and resistant (≥25)
    • Penicillin G testing for other microorganisms: 10 units, with interpretation as sensitive (≤11), intermediate (12-21), and resistant (≥22)

    Polymyxin B Susceptibility Testing

    • Polymyxin B (PB) testing: 300 units, with interpretation as sensitive (≤8), intermediate (9-11), and resistant (≥12)

    Rifampin Susceptibility Testing

    • Rifampin testing for N. meningitidis susceptibility: 5 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤24), and resistant (≥25)

    Streptomycin Susceptibility Testing

    • Streptomycin testing: 10 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤11), intermediate (12-14), and resistant (≥15)

    Sulfonamide Susceptibility Testing

    • Sulfonamides testing: 300 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤12), intermediate (13-16), and resistant (≥17)

    Tetracycline Susceptibility Testing

    • Tetracycline (T, TE) testing: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤14), intermediate (15-18), and resistant (≥19)

    Vancomycin Susceptibility Testing

    • Vancomycin (VA) testing: 30 μg, with interpretation as sensitive (≤9), intermediate (10-11), and resistant (≥12)

    Operating Room Hand Soap

    • The operating room physician recommends periodically changing the hand soap used in the operating room to maintain effectiveness against microbial infections.

    Microbial Infections on Cruise Ships

    • There have been incidents of travelers getting seriously ill from microbial infections on cruise ships.
    • To resolve this issue, specific recommendations would be needed, such as implementing proper hand hygiene practices, ensuring cleanliness of surfaces and equipment, and providing adequate education to employees.

    Hexachlorophene

    • Hexachlorophene was once an over-the-counter antiseptic but now requires a prescription for concentrations greater than 3%.
    • The requirement was likely initiated due to concerns over the potential risks or side effects of high-concentration hexachlorophene solutions.

    Kirby-Bauer Method

    • The Kirby-Bauer method is used to analyze the effectiveness of antibiotics.
    • Objectives of the Kirby-Bauer method include:
      • Defining and providing an example of an antibiotic
      • Explaining the difference between an antibiotic, antiseptic, and disinfectant
      • Performing the procedure for testing antibiotic effectiveness using antibiotic discs on bacterial cultures.

    Antibiotic Disc Test

    • Antibiotic discs are applied to bacterial culture to test their effectiveness individually or by dispenser.
    • The test measures the zones of growth inhibition caused by antibiotics.

    Zones of Inhibition

    • The zones of inhibition are classified into three categories based on the diameter of the zone:
    • R (Resistant): Zone of inhibition with a diameter equal to or less than the inner circle, indicating the antibiotic does not inhibit bacterial growth.
    • I (Intermediate): Zone of inhibition with a diameter greater than R, but less than the outer circle, indicating the antibiotic somehow inhibits bacterial growth.
    • S (Sensitive): Zone of inhibition with a diameter greater than the outer circle, indicating the antibiotic inhibits bacterial growth very well.

    Antibiotics

    • Antibiotics are chemicals produced by living organisms to inhibit the growth of or kill other organisms.
    • They are sometimes referred to as natural products.

    Kirby-Bauer Method

    • The Kirby-Bauer method is a technique used to determine the effectiveness of antibiotics.
    • Mueller-Hinton agar is used in this procedure because it allows for rapid diffusion of antibiotics through the medium.
    • Antibiotic discs are placed on the medium, and the effectiveness of the antibiotic is determined by measuring the zone of inhibition.
    • The zone sizes are compared to values on standardized tables to determine whether the microorganism is Resistant, Intermediate, or Sensitive to a particular antibiotic.

    Ultraviolet Light and Microbial Growth

    • Ultraviolet light is a physical agent used to sterilize surgical instruments, tabletops, and food products, including milk, to decrease microbial growth.

    Mechanism of Action

    • Ultraviolet light inhibits microbial growth by causing the formation of pyrimidine dimers in DNA.
    • Pyrimidine dimers are double bonds that form between adjacent pyrimidines in a strand of DNA.
    • Dimers distort DNA structure, thereby inhibiting DNA replication and interfering with subsequent cell division.

    Materials Used in the Experiment

    • Liquid cultures of Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia marcescens, and Escherichia coli
    • 5 nutrient agar plates (TSA plates)
    • Sterile cotton applicator sticks (swabs)
    • Index cards
    • Ultraviolet (UV) lamp

    Experimental Procedure

    • Wear protective eyewear (sunglasses) to protect eyes from UV light.
    • Label 5 TSA plates with the name of the organism and divide each plate into two halves.
    • Label one half "exposed" and the other half "unexposed" and label exposed sides with different exposure times (15, 30, 60, 90, and 120 seconds).
    • Dip a sterile swab into the culture tube and spread the culture to create a "bacterial lawn" on each plate.
    • Repeat the process for all 4 plates.

    UV Light and Microbial Growth Experiment

    • The experiment involves exposing plates of Serratia marcescens to different durations of ultraviolet (UV) light: 15 seconds, 30 seconds, 60 seconds, 90 seconds, and 120 seconds.
    • The plates are incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours to observe the effect of UV light on microbial growth.

    Procedure

    • Dip a sterile swab into the culture tube and spread the culture to create a "bacterial lawn" on each plate.
    • Cover the 'unexposed' side of each plate with an index card and place the plate under the UV lamp for the designated amount of time.
    • Repeat the process for all five plates.
    • Incubate the plates at 37°C for 24-48 hours.

    Observations and Results

    • Compare the unexposed and exposed sides of the plates to observe the effect of UV light on microbial growth.
    • Draw labeled diagrams indicating the number and color of colonies observed on each plate.

    Key Concepts

    UV Light and Microbial Growth

    • UV light inhibits microbial growth by causing the formation of pyrimidine dimers, which prevents DNA replication.
    • Exposure to UV light can cause a decrease in the number of Serratia marcescens cells.

    Sterilization and UV Light

    • UV light is used for sterilization of inanimate objects to kill microbes.
    • UV light is applied to objects such as milk for ultra-pasteurization, which provides additional protection against microbial contamination.
    • A possible benefit of using both pasteurization and UV light is to ensure more comprehensive killing of microbes.

    UV Light and Microbial Growth Experiment

    • The experiment involves exposing plates of Serratia marcescens to different durations of ultraviolet (UV) light: 15 seconds, 30 seconds, 60 seconds, 90 seconds, and 120 seconds.
    • The plates are incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours to observe the effect of UV light on microbial growth.

    Procedure

    • Dip a sterile swab into the culture tube and spread the culture to create a "bacterial lawn" on each plate.
    • Cover the 'unexposed' side of each plate with an index card and place the plate under the UV lamp for the designated amount of time.
    • Repeat the process for all five plates.
    • Incubate the plates at 37°C for 24-48 hours.

    Observations and Results

    • Compare the unexposed and exposed sides of the plates to observe the effect of UV light on microbial growth.
    • Draw labeled diagrams indicating the number and color of colonies observed on each plate.

    Key Concepts

    UV Light and Microbial Growth

    • UV light inhibits microbial growth by causing the formation of pyrimidine dimers, which prevents DNA replication.
    • Exposure to UV light can cause a decrease in the number of Serratia marcescens cells.

    Sterilization and UV Light

    • UV light is used for sterilization of inanimate objects to kill microbes.
    • UV light is applied to objects such as milk for ultra-pasteurization, which provides additional protection against microbial contamination.
    • A possible benefit of using both pasteurization and UV light is to ensure more comprehensive killing of microbes.

    Lysozyme and Nonspecific Resistance

    • Lysozyme is an enzyme found in body secretions such as tears, saliva, and mucous, that confers antibacterial activity as part of the immune system's nonspecific resistance.

    Antibacterial Activity of Lysozyme

    • Lysozyme causes the degradation of bacterial cell walls, specifically affecting peptidoglycan.
    • This makes it more effective against Gram-positive bacteria than Gram-negative bacteria.

    Effectiveness of Lysozyme Against Different Bacteria

    • Lysozyme will be tested against three bacteria: Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli.
    • The larger the zone of inhibition, the greater the effectiveness of lysozyme in inhibiting bacterial growth.

    Exercise Procedure

    • Sterile cotton swabs are used to spread bacterial cultures over agar plates.
    • Sterile paper disks are saturated with purified lysozyme solution and placed in the center of each plate.
    • Plates are incubated at 37°C for 24-48 hours to observe zones of inhibition.

    Illness and Its Causes

    • Feeling unwell can have various causes, including changes in weather, pollen count, or catching a bug from someone else.
    • Signs and symptoms of illness can result from a pathogenic infection or an immune response to a perceived threat.

    Immune Response and Fever

    • The immune system may release pyrogens, chemicals that increase body temperature, in response to certain pathogens.
    • This response creates an unfavorable environment for the pathogen, but it also makes the person feel sick.

    Diagnosis and Treatment

    • Medical professionals use signs and symptoms to determine the cause of an ailment and prescribe treatment.
    • While signs and symptoms can help identify the causative agent of a disease, they are often not unique to a specific disease.
    • Direct and indirect diagnostic methods are often necessary to confirm the identity of the infectious agent.

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    Description

    Learn about the differences between antiseptics and disinfectants, their uses, and their effects on microorganisms. Understand the terms microcidal and microstatic in the context of antimicrobial agents.

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