Animal Production Systems

• Animal production is a key element of human welfare through provision of food, animal products, employment, and economic growth
• It is a science that improves animals by perfecting methods of reproduction, selection, health, and feeding from an economic standpoint

Types of Animal Production Systems

• In Latin America, the main types of animal production systems are extensive, intensive, and semi-intensive

Intensive Systems

• These systems are completely artificial, created by humans
• Animals are confined and live in controlled temperature, light, and humidity

Extensive Systems

• Involve animals foraging for food in a natural or modified area known as a paddock
• Animals spend most of their time in these large areas

Semi-Extensive Systems

• These systems combine extensive and intensive breeding methods either simultaneously or alternately
• The approach adapts to climatic conditions and the physiological state of the livestock

Technified System

• Characterized by high technology and automated processes
• Allows for managing large numbers of animals and reducing costs based on production volume

Semi-Technified

• Characterized by a mid-level of technology with manual or mechanized milking of a few units

Bovine Production System Characteristics

• The system is characterized by its purpose, which leads the breeder to choose a particular type of cattle for their goals
• Some purposes that bovine production systems focus on are milk, meat, breeding stock, fattening calves, and dual-purpose

Factors Influencing Production Systems

• Significant factors include feeding practices, hormonal compounds, and growth promoters

Types of Bovine Feed

• Forages are the green parts of plants rich in fiber (stems, leaves, and flowers)
• Commonly used plants provide a good percentage of these components, grow quickly, don’t deplete the soil, and contain balanced nutrients
• The most important forages include barley, oats, alfalfa, clover, fescue, ryegrass, and sorghum
• Harvested forages include hay, silage and straw
• Concentrates generally contain a mixture of hayed or dehydrated forage plants, various cereal grains (especially corn), extruded soybean, and sometimes fats to increase energy
• They also include minerals and vitamins to supplement what the animal doesn't get from food

Gestation Period

• Gestation lasts between 280 and 285 days, depending on the breed and environmental conditions
• Cows typically have one offspring per gestation

Weaning Period

• Traditional and recommended weaning in cattle occurs between 8 and 9 months

Colostrum Production

• Bovine colostrum is a mixture of milk secretions and blood serum components, particularly immunoglobulins and other proteins
• These accumulate in the mammary gland during the dry pre-partum period, which begins weeks before delivery
• It is secreted in the first 24 hours post-partum up to about 72 hours

Space Requirements

• Animals should have a minimum area of 3.5 square meters per adult animal (1.5 m2 per 150 kg of live weight minimum)
• Animals should not be tied up

Bovine Characteristics

• Classification is based on physiological conditions

Physiological Classifications

• Calf refers to an animal from birth until weaning at 6-8 months
• Maute is between weaning and the start of sexual activity
• Heifer is a female at the start of sexual activity and first calving
• Torete is a male after puberty
• Novillo is a castrated male
• Cow is an adult female after calving
• Bull is an adult male

Environmental Conditions

• Environmental conditions should be observed according to the livestock being managed
• Most livestock have adapted to the tropics

Shade

• It is important to consider shade in free grazing areas that would have lots of shadow for times of maximum sun exposure
• Fresh areas that can allow to rest, water availability and pasture should be considered in times of climate changes and droughts to maintain water and food access

Illumination

• The main component to look for is clarity during the day, in the event the livestock is stabled, the areas should have yellow light, high ceilings, and be fresh

Reproduction

• The heat cycle in cows occurs every 21 days, varying from 18 to 24 days, and lasts 12 to 18 hours
• Reproduction can be achieved through natural mating with one or multiple bulls per herd
• Biotechnological techniques such as artificial insemination, embryo transfer, or in vitro fertilization are alternatives
• One calving per year for each cow is considered ideal
• Gestation in cows averages 285 days, with a margin of about 10 days
• Cows can re-enter heat 45 days post-partum, allowing time for uterine recovery
• An interval of 400 days for the next calving suggests breeding about 3 months after calving

Lactation

• Lactation varies with breeds; some, like Holstein, Jersey, and European Bos taurus lines, have maximum milk production with 305-day lactations
• Other breeds produce less milk with a lactation period of 205 days
• Weaning of calves occurs at approximately 7-9 months

Time of Exit

• Key conditions for good quality meat are the age and weight of animal
• Cattle should reach a weight between 450 kg and 500 kg, though breed also influences this value
• To reach 600-800 kg in about 24 months is ideal for freshness, color, and meat quality

Pathologies - Diseases

• The most common diseases in cattle are infectious and may affect humans through meat or milk consumption

Key Diseases

• Common diseases that can affect cattle includes mastitis, foot-and-mouth disease, tuberculosis, clostridiosis, leptospirosis, foot problems, and internal parasites

Recognizing a Sick Animal

• Signs of illness include depression, listlessness, sadness, poor condition of the meat, and skin abnormalities
• Look at for fever, abnormalities of the eyes, nose, ears, anus, mouth, and vulva (redness, paleness, or discharge), check the pulse, examine lymph nodes, measure respiration, and palpate the abdomen
• Taking a laboratory sample may also be needed

Health Plan

• The health plan should control bacteria, parasites, diseases, pests, and other harmful organisms
• It should be associated with each production system, including typical regional diseases
• Disinfection of the umbilical cord with 7% iodine should always be performed
• Calves should receive colostrum to avoid infection; they need to ingest 10% of their weight at birth

Antiparasitic protocols

• Example protocols include external deworming with ivermectin, using anticoccidials, administering rabies vaccine at 3 months, vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease and leptospirosis
• Control hemoparasites and using brucellosis vaccine

Management of Bovine Production System

• Bovine feeding refers to the practices and methods used to provide food to cattle
• Adapting feeding to the specific needs of livestock based on their age, weight, physiological state, and production goals is essential

Forages

• The main fiber source includes fresh pasture, hay, and silage

Fresh Pasture

• Includes various species of grasses and legumes that are offered directly from the field

Examples of Fresh Pasture

• Alfalfa, clover, ryegrass, and brachiaria.

Hay

• Dried grass that is cut and stored for use when fresh pasture is unavailable
• It is either sun-dried or dried in specialized facilities to reduce moisture content and prevent mold

Examples of Hay

• Alfalfa hay, meadow hay, and fescue hay

Silage

• Fermented forage that is preserved in the absence of oxygen (in silos) to maintain its nutritional value
• Plants are harvested, chopped, and stored under anaerobic conditions for fermentation

Examples of Silage

• Corn silage, sorghum silage, and pasture silage

Advantages of Forages

• Are rich in fiber, aid digestion and prevent ruminal problems
• They provide balanced nutrition including proteins, vitamins, and essential minerals
• They are generally more economical than commercial concentrates
• They can be produced on the same farm, reducing dependence on external inputs

Concentrates

• A source of energy and protein and complement forage diets
• They supply the energy needed for growth, milk production, and other vital functions

Examples of Energetic Concentrates

• Corn grains are highly energetic and easy to digest
• Barley is a rich source of carbohydrates
• Oats are a good source of energy and fiber

Protein Concentrates

• Protein are needed for growth and milk production

Examples of Protein Concentrates

• Soybean meal, being rich in high quality proteins
• Fish meal, being a concentrated source of protein and essential fatty acids
• Alfalfa meal, being a good source of protein and fiber
• Mineral and Vitamin Supplements ensure that livestock receive all essential micronutrients

How to Calculate the Amount of Feed

Step 1: Live Weight

• Current weight of the animal used to calculate nutritional needs

Step 2: Daily Dry Matter Requirement

• Approximately 2.5% of live weight

Step 3: Amount of Forage

• At least 60% of the daily dry matter diet

Step 4: Amount of Concentrate

• Up to 40% of the daily dry matter diet

Nutritional Needs

Total Considerations

• An animal of 500 kg needs to consume 12.5 kg of dry matter per day: 7.5 kg of forage and 5 kg of concentrates, along with minerals and vitamins as per recommendations
• Water is essential for the health and productivity of cattle
• Lack of water can lead to digestive problems, decreased milk production, weight loss, kidney problems, reduced immunity, and reproductive issues

Water Consumption

• Calves (0-6 months) should consume 10-15 liters/day
• Growing (6-12 months) animals should consume 20-30 liters/day
• Fattening (12-24 months) animals should consume 30-40 liters/day
• Adult cows (in production) should consume 50-60 liters/day

Required Space per Animal

Free Stabling Recommended Space

• Resting area: 10 to 12 m² per cow
• Exercise area: 20 to 30 m² per cow

Fixed Stabling Recommended Space

• Stall width: 1.2 to 1.5 m per cow
• Stall length: 1.8 to 2.1 m per cow

Pasture Requirements

• 0.5 to 1 hectare per cow

Herd Management

• Proper management of cattle at milking time is important for high-quality milk production, animal welfare, and process efficiency

Milking Area Preparation

• Clean and disinfect the milking area to prevent infections
• Ensure all milking equipment is in good working and well-maintained condition

Managing Cows Before Milking

• Feed animals after milking to prevent them from lying down immediately after the process
• Maintain a consistent daily milking routine at regular times to minimize stress in cows
• Observe cows for disease or discomfort before milking

During Milking

• Wash the udders and teats
• Dry udder and teats thoroughly before milking After Milking
• Apply a pre-milking teat disinfectant and dry teats with a disposable towel
• Apply a post-milking teat disinfectant immediately after milking to prevent infections
• Attach the milking machines carefully to avoid hurting the cows
• Pay attention to avoid stressing the cows

Constant Supervision

• Constant monitoring on the behavior of cows

Equipment Maintenance

• Ensure after the milking the area as well as the equipment being used is thouroughly cleaned and sanitized

Managing Livestock During Childbirth

Before Childbirth

• Closely monitor pregnant cows, especially in the final weeks of gestation
• Look for signs like softening of the vulva, colostrum production, and changes in behavior
• Ensure the cows have access to a clean and safe area for calving, free from hazards

During Childbirth

• Monitor the delivery process
• Have assistance and clean equipment avaliable.
• Prolonged labor

After Childbirth

• Check the calf to make sure its breathing, eating, and standing.

Maintaining Health

• Observe cows for post-partum complications such as placenta retention, mastitis, or metritis
• Clean and disinfect the calving area and any used equipment
• Sanitation plan is necessary to maintain the health of the herd

Sanitation and Control

• Important parts include vaccination, deworming, adequate water, balanced feeding, and hygiene

Vaccination

• Administer vaccine to stimulate the animals system to protect against disease

Deworming

• Important to eliminate parasites to maintain productivity

Vaccination schedules

• Foot-and-mouth disease is administered bi or trivalent and must be at 6months and up.
• Brucellosis-RB51 to S19-Calves 4-12 months-One time
• Anthrax (Carbunco (Ántrax))-Vaccine against symptomatic carbuncle and needs to be administered 6 months and up and is anually.
• Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (IBR (Rinotraqueitis Infecciosa Bovina))-Combo Vaccine BVD AND NEEDS TO BE ADMINISTERED 6-8 MONTHS ANNUALLY
• BVD Vaccine combo IBR-6-8 MONTHS ANNUALLY
• Leptospirosis Multi Vaccine 6-12 months. ANUALLY
• Clostridiosis Clostridial Vaccine 2-4 months and is annual
• Schedule is usually indicated.

Worming Schedules

Parasite/Frequency/Medication

• Intestinal worms has ivermectin and every 6 months
• Fasciola hépatica has Triclabendazol oral and every 3-6 months
• Ticks has amitraz topical and every 1-2 months (high seasons)
• Lice Permethrin topical AND every-1-2 months as needed

Diseases affecting Bovines

Brucellosis Bovine

• Infection caused by bacterial

Symptoms

• Aborta, Retained Placentas, Infertility and Arthritis

Transmission

• contact via bodily fluids

Treatment

• There is nothing to do to cure and it must be gotten rid of animal

Fever

• Symptoms
• • Fever and ulcers

Transmission

• Contact

Treatment

• Comfort using vaccines

Leptosirosis

• Bacteria infection
• SYMPTOMS headache and Diarrhea
• Transmission-contact in bodily fluids
• Treat symptoms AND antibiotics

Clostridium

• Transmission fluids ingestion and lesion
• fever aND Diaherra

Viral Bovine

• CUAUSES Antibiotics against the VIRAL
• Transmission-horizontal and directly but may happen at birth
• Treat by comforting symptoms