Animal Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What does proximate causation focus on in physiological processes?

  • Immediate physiological mechanisms (correct)
  • Long-term adaptations of organisms
  • Evolutionary advantages of behaviors
  • Historical context of species development

In the context of muscle contraction, what does ultimate causation explain?

  • The role of cellular processes
  • The evolutionary reason for the process (correct)
  • The molecular interactions during contraction
  • The types of muscle fibers involved

What is the primary difference between basic and applied physiology?

  • Basic physiology studies physiology in humans only, while applied physiology includes animals.
  • Basic physiology examines molecular biology only, while applied physiology examines ecologies.
  • Basic physiology focuses on comparative analysis, while applied physiology does not.
  • Basic physiology is theoretical, while applied physiology is practical. (correct)

How does potential energy relate to animal physiology?

<p>It refers to energy stored in molecules and gradients. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the overarching goal of the course described?

<p>To explore physiological principles across species (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one example of how applied physiology can benefit society?

<p>Enhancing traditional farming practices (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is potential energy also associated with in cellular physiology?

<p>Electrochemical gradients across membranes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is NOT included in the scope of the course?

<p>Philosophical implications of physiology (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At which level of analysis would researchers investigate the hormones regulating reproduction?

<p>Molecular level (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which chromosome's presence primarily dictates the development of male reproductive organs in mammals?

<p>Y chromosome (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary impact of endocrine disruptors on animal reproduction?

<p>Changes in reproductive development (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following hypotheses suggests that sleep helps in energy restoration?

<p>Restoration Hypothesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key stage of sleep is associated with memory consolidation?

<p>REM sleep (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major challenge in studying the effects of endocrine disruptors?

<p>Identifying subtle effects (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a function of sleep during the REM stage?

<p>Consolidation of learning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method is commonly used to study brain activity during different stages of sleep?

<p>Neuroimaging techniques (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect can plastic, as an endocrine disruptor, have on animal reproductive systems?

<p>Altered hormone pathways (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily responsible for the development of female secondary sexual characteristics?

<p>Estrogen (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What adaptation allows high-altitude birds like bar-headed geese to effectively capture oxygen?

<p>Higher affinity hemoglobin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do respiratory systems minimize energy use while maximizing gas exchange?

<p>Through complex ventilation mechanisms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of countercurrent exchange in physiological systems?

<p>To maximize gas exchange efficiency (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which fluid compartment is responsible for fluid balance outside the cells?

<p>Interstitial fluid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What strategy do freshwater fish use to deal with external dilution?

<p>Using specialized gill cells to absorb salts (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of waste is typically excreted in a more concentrated form by birds and reptiles?

<p>Uric acid (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the kidney is primarily responsible for filtering blood?

<p>Glomeruli (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do hormones achieve specificity in their actions throughout the body?

<p>Through their interaction with specific receptors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do negative feedback loops play in homeostasis?

<p>To maintain equilibrium by counteracting changes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which organism is most likely to have straightforward regulatory systems due to stable environments?

<p>Deep-sea fish (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological adaptation do salmon use when transitioning from freshwater to saltwater?

<p>Reduce urine output significantly (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the nephron's countercurrent exchange mechanism?

<p>To recover nutrients and maintain osmotic balance (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of feedback mechanism is primarily involved in processes like childbirth?

<p>Positive feedback (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the structures of the renal glomeruli relate to kidney function?

<p>They filter blood to remove waste (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system play in mammalian physiology?

<p>Controls blood pressure and sodium balance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between metabolic rate and body size in animals?

<p>Larger animals have a lower metabolic rate per unit mass (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do ectotherms manage their metabolic rate concerning environmental temperature?

<p>By adjusting their metabolic rate based on environmental fluctuations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which adaptation allows camels to thrive in desert environments?

<p>Ability to withstand body temperature variations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the heat balance equation describe?

<p>How animals maintain body temperature through heat management (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Performance curves help to understand which of the following?

<p>Effects of temperature across different species (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do tropical species typically react to slight temperature changes?

<p>They may exceed their thermal optimal range and face survival threats (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a sensory transducer?

<p>It converts external stimuli into electrical signals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when a receptor potential reaches a certain threshold?

<p>It triggers an action potential (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does shivering do in cold environments?

<p>Generates heat through muscle activity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens in the pejus temperature range for organisms?

<p>Activity levels diminish but organisms can still survive (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological feature supports water conservation in camels?

<p>Large nasal passages to reduce evaporation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What adaptive mechanism do endotherms employ to manage heat in warm environments?

<p>Seek shade to avoid heat gain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of global climate change specifically on temperate species?

<p>Disruption of seasonal behaviors and life cycles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during isometric contractions?

<p>Muscle length remains constant while generating force (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which metabolic process is primarily used for short bursts of intense activity?

<p>Anaerobic metabolism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is muscle hypertrophy?

<p>The process of muscle fibers increasing in size and strength (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do fast-twitch muscle fibers differ from slow-twitch fibers?

<p>Fast-twitch fibers generate high force for short bursts (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism do animals use to improve muscle power during movement?

<p>Employing mechanical systems like tendons and levers (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of valves in a closed circulatory system?

<p>To prevent backflow of blood (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the ear in detecting sound?

<p>Converting vibrations into neural signals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a two-chambered heart differ functionally from a four-chambered heart?

<p>The four-chambered heart ensures efficient separation of blood types (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure of the ear is responsible for balance?

<p>Semicircular canals (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of partial pressure in gas exchange?

<p>It influences how gases diffuse based on their individual pressures (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the body respond to acute stress?

<p>Mobilizes energy stores (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily released during the stress response?

<p>Cortisol (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do respiratory pigments like hemoglobin assist in gas transport?

<p>By binding to and transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does solubility influence gas concentrations in blood?

<p>Higher solubility allows for more gas to be carried in fluid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of chronic stress on the immune system?

<p>Suppresses immune responses (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common method for studying ear function in research?

<p>Vestibular function tests (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What adaptation helps animals manage fatigue during prolonged exercise?

<p>Becoming more efficient at using energy through training (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the Bohr effect have on hemoglobin's function?

<p>Decreases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen in low pH (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are tympanal organs primarily used for in some invertebrate species?

<p>Detecting sound (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a major stressor for wild animals?

<p>The presence of natural predators (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do adaptations in circulatory systems reflect evolutionary diversity?

<p>They meet diverse metabolic and environmental needs of species (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In wild animals, how can stress manifest physiologically?

<p>Altered immune function (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the otolith organs in the ear?

<p>Measuring linear acceleration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one method of experimental analysis used in studying stress in wild animals?

<p>Controlled stressor exposure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the outer, middle, and inner ear sections function together?

<p>To transmit and convert sound waves (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the HPA axis play in stress response?

<p>It releases cortisol from adrenal glands. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sensory input is primarily linked to the auditory system?

<p>Sound vibrations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the sodium-potassium pump?

<p>To establish a concentration gradient by moving sodium out and potassium in (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process combines to improve water and nutrient absorption in the intestines during diarrheal disease treatment?

<p>Osmosis and secondary active transport (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do ion channels play in the function of neurons?

<p>They allow the flow of ions, generating electrical currents for signal propagation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How did the evolution of neurons contribute to communication in multicellular organisms?

<p>Neurons developed from simple cell signaling mechanisms to enable complex communication (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the role of the dendrites in neuron function?

<p>They receive signals from other neurons (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of synaptic plasticity?

<p>It enables learning and memory through variable signal control (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes isotonic muscle contractions?

<p>Muscle fibers shorten or lengthen while maintaining constant tension (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of the lipid bilayer in cell membranes?

<p>It provides a hydrophobic environment that controls permeability (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do calcium ions affect muscle contractions?

<p>They allow actin and myosin to interact for contraction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary mechanism explains how neurons transmit electrical signals?

<p>Action potentials travel along the axon due to ion flow across the membrane (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the major role of the cerebellum in the brain?

<p>Coordination and motor control (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What advantage do model organisms like mice and zebrafish provide in neurological research?

<p>They allow researchers to manipulate specific genetic traits easily (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes active transport from facilitated diffusion?

<p>It utilizes energy to move substances against their gradient (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of neurotransmitters at synapses?

<p>They facilitate communication between two neurons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Proximate Causation

Explains the 'how' of a physiological process, focusing on the immediate mechanisms involved. For example, how calcium ions trigger muscle contraction.

Ultimate Causation

Explains the 'why' of a physiological process, considering its evolutionary advantage. For example, why muscle contraction evolved for movement and survival.

Basic Physiology

The study of fundamental biological processes within living organisms, like how organs function or how cells respond to stimuli.

Applied Physiology

Applies the knowledge of basic physiology to practical applications, such as improving human health or developing new animal treatments.

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Potential Energy

The energy stored within an object or system due to its position or state. In physiology, this refers to energy stored in molecules or electrochemical gradients.

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Potential Energy in Molecules

Molecules like glucose and fats contain stored chemical energy that can be released during metabolic processes.

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Potential Energy in Electrochemical Gradients

Electrochemical gradients, like ion gradients across cell membranes, store energy that can be used for processes such as nerve impulses and muscle contractions.

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Course Goal

This course aims to understand how animals adapt to their environments by exploring physiological principles across different species.

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High-Affinity Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin with higher affinity for oxygen, allowing for efficient oxygen capture in low-oxygen environments.

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Low-Affinity Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin with lower affinity for oxygen, promoting efficient oxygen release to tissues for high metabolic rates.

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Gas Exchange

The exchange of gases between an organism and its environment.

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Alveoli

Tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

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Ventilation

The process of moving air into and out of the lungs.

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Tidal Volume

The volume of air inhaled or exhaled in a single breath.

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Breathing Frequency

The number of breaths per minute.

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Countercurrent Exchange

The flow of fluids in opposite directions across a membrane, maximizing gas exchange.

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Intracellular Fluid (ICF)

The fluid within cells, playing a role in water and waste homeostasis.

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Extracellular Fluid (ECF)

The fluid outside cells, including blood plasma and interstitial fluid, critical for fluid balance.

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Salt-Pumping Cells

Specialized cells in fish gills that actively pump salts into their bodies to counteract dilution.

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Excretion

The process of removing waste products from the body.

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Ammonia

Highly toxic waste product excreted by aquatic animals.

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Urea

Less toxic waste product excreted by most terrestrial animals.

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Uric Acid

Most concentrated form of waste product, excreted by water-conserving animals like birds and reptiles.

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Cell Membrane

A selectively permeable barrier surrounding cells that controls what enters and exits.

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Electrochemical Gradient

The difference in electrical charge and concentration of ions across a membrane.

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Ion Channels

Proteins embedded in the cell membrane that allow specific ions to pass through.

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Pumps (Active Transport)

Proteins that use energy (ATP) to move substances against their concentration gradient.

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Osmosis

Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high.

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Secondary Active Transport

The movement of one substance driven by the concentration gradient of another substance.

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Oral Rehydration Therapy (ORT)

A treatment for dehydration using a solution with glucose and sodium, which helps draw water back into the intestines.

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Action Potentials

The electrical signals that travel along the axon of a neuron, caused by the movement of ions across the membrane.

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Synapse

The junction where two neurons communicate, allowing for precise control of neural signals.

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Synaptic Plasticity

The ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time, enabling learning and memory.

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Brain

The organ in animals that processes information, controls movement, and enables cognition.

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Ganglion

A cluster of nerve cells that coordinates basic activities in simple organisms.

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Actin and Myosin

Proteins that interact to create muscle contraction, using ATP as fuel.

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Muscle Variability

The ability to vary muscle contraction strength and speed by adjusting the concentration and arrangement of muscle proteins.

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Isotonic Contractions

Muscle contractions that shorten or lengthen the muscle while maintaining constant tension.

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Eccentric Contraction

Muscle contraction where the muscle lengthens while generating force. Think of lowering a heavy weight.

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Concentric Contraction

Muscle contraction where the muscle shortens while generating force. Think of lifting a weight.

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Isometric Contraction

Muscle contraction where the muscle generates force but does not change length. Think of pushing against a wall.

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Force-Velocity Relationship

The relationship between the force a muscle can generate and the speed of its contraction; the faster the contraction, the less force it can produce.

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Leverage

A biological lever system that amplifies the force produced by muscles. Think of how a lever helps you lift a heavy object.

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Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers

Muscle fibers suited for rapid, powerful contractions but fatigue quickly. Think of sprinting.

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Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers

Muscle fibers adapted for sustained, low-intensity contractions, resistant to fatigue. Think of long-distance running.

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Elastic Energy Storage

A structure like tendons that stores elastic energy during one phase of movement and releases it during another phase, enhancing efficiency. Think of kangaroos bouncing.

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Eccentric Training

A type of training where the muscle lengthens under load, which improves tendon stiffness and efficiency. Think of lowering weights slowly.

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Small-Scale Flow in Circulation

The flow of blood at the capillary level, where gas exchange, nutrient delivery, and waste removal occur.

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Large-Scale Flow in Circulation

The movement of blood through large vessels, propelled by the heart, delivering blood to different parts of the body.

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Open Circulatory System

Circulatory systems where blood flows freely in the body cavity, often found in invertebrates with lower energy demands.

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Closed Circulatory System

Circulatory systems where blood is confined within vessels and pumped by a heart, commonly found in vertebrates with higher energy demands.

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Partial Pressure of a Gas

The pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture, crucial for understanding gas exchange in the lungs or gills.

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Solubility of a Gas

The ability of a gas to dissolve in a liquid, important for determining how much gas can be transported in blood or hemolymph.

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Respiratory Pigments

Proteins like hemoglobin or hemocyanin that increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood by binding to oxygen molecules.

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What is metabolism?

The sum of all chemical reactions within a living organism, including both building (anabolic) and breaking down (catabolic) processes. Maintains life.

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What is metabolic rate?

The rate at which an organism uses energy per unit of time. Measured by methods like calorimetry or oxygen consumption.

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How does metabolic rate relate to body size?

Larger animals have a higher total metabolic rate due to more tissue and organs, but smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate per gram of body weight due to their higher surface area-to-volume ratio.

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How does temperature affect metabolism?

Temperature strongly influences metabolic rate. Ectotherms rely on external temperature, while endotherms regulate their own temperature, but temperature still impacts their metabolism.

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Who was Knut Schmidt-Nielsen?

A pioneering biologist known for his work in comparative physiology and animal thermoregulation, particularly how animals regulate their body temperature in extreme environments.

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What is the heat balance equation?

Describes how animals maintain a stable body temperature by managing the balance between heat production, loss, and gain. Includes factors like radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation.

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How do camels exemplify thermoregulation in deserts?

Camels are well adapted to deserts, tolerating large temperature fluctuations. Insulation, water conservation, and special nasal passages help them survive.

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How does the heat balance equation work in different environments?

In cold environments, animals need to generate heat (shivering, non-shivering thermogenesis, increased metabolic rate). In hot environments, they need to avoid heat gain (shade) and enhance heat loss (sweating, panting, increased blood flow).

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What are performance curves?

Graphs that show the relationship between an organism's performance (like metabolic rate or reproductive success) and temperature. Each species has an optimal temperature range for optimal performance.

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What is the thermal optimal range?

The temperature range where organisms perform best. Below this range, performance decreases due to metabolic slowing. Above this range, enzymes and cellular components may become damaged.

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What is the pejus range?

The temperature range where organisms can survive but may experience reduced performance. Organisms are still alive, but not at their best.

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What is the critical temperature range?

The temperature limits beyond which organisms cannot survive. They are at risk of dying if temperatures stay within this range.

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How does global climate change affect organisms from different zones?

Tropical species have adapted to stable, high temperatures, so even small temperature changes can be harmful. Temperate species have a wider tolerance and may be better able to adapt to climate change, but extreme shifts can still disrupt their life cycles.

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What is a sensory transducer?

A biological system that converts external stimuli (like light, sound, pressure) into electrical signals for the nervous system to process. Similar to engineered transducers (e.g., microphones, cameras).

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How do sensory transducers work?

Sensory transducers use specialized receptors (like photoreceptors in the eyes, mechanoreceptors in the skin) to detect stimuli and convert them into action potentials (electrical signals).

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How is a stimulus turned into a neural signal?

When a stimulus is detected by a receptor, it triggers a receptor potential, a graded electrical signal. If this potential reaches a certain threshold, it triggers an action potential that travels to the brain for processing.

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Endocrine Disruptors

Chemicals that interfere with the normal function of hormones, potentially causing disruptions in reproduction, development, and behavior.

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Sexual Differentiation

The process by which males and females develop distinct reproductive systems, influenced by genetic and hormonal factors.

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Reproductive System: Organ and System Levels

The study of the anatomy and function of reproductive organs, including ovaries, testes, and uterus.

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Hormonal Regulation of Reproduction

Hormones like testosterone and estrogen that influence the development of secondary sexual characteristics and the timing of puberty.

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Endocrine Disruptors: Mechanism of Action

Chemicals that can disrupt the normal communication of hormones in the body, potentially impacting reproductive health and fertility.

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What is Sleep?

A reversible state of reduced consciousness and activity, essential for bodily and mental restoration, characterized by different sleep stages.

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Why is Sleep Important?

Sleep is vital for cognitive function, memory consolidation, physical health, and emotional well-being.

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Restoration Hypothesis of Sleep

A hypothesis that proposes sleep allows for the repair and restoration of energy levels in the body and brain.

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Memory Consolidation Hypothesis of Sleep

The hypothesis that sleep plays a critical role in consolidating memories learned during the day, particularly during REM sleep.

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Evolutionary Hypothesis of Sleep

The hypothesis that sleep evolved to conserve energy during periods of low activity, when resources are limited.

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What is an 'ear'?

The specialized organ for detecting sound and maintaining balance.

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What is the outer ear?

The outermost part of the ear that gathers sound waves and focuses them towards the middle ear.

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What is the middle ear?

The middle ear contains tiny bones called ossicles that amplify sound vibrations, transmitting them to the inner ear.

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What is the inner ear?

The innermost part of the ear where sound is converted into electrical signals by specialized hair cells located in the cochlea.

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What is the cochlea?

The cochlea in the inner ear is a fluid-filled, spiral-shaped structure that contains hair cells sensitive to different frequencies.

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What are hair cells?

Hair cells are sensory cells in the cochlea that convert sound vibrations into electrical signals.

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How does the ear help with balance?

The sense of balance is maintained by the inner ear through semicircular canals and otolith organs.

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What are the semicircular canals?

Semicircular canals are fluid-filled, ring-shaped structures that detect rotational movement of the head.

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What are otolith organs?

Otolith organs, the utricle and saccule, within the inner ear detect linear acceleration and head position relative to gravity.

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What is stress?

A physiological response to perceived threats or challenges, designed to help the organism cope with the stressor.

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What is acute stress?

A short-term stress response to an immediate threat, triggering the fight-or-flight reaction.

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What is chronic stress?

A long-term stress response to persistent challenges, potentially leading to health issues if prolonged.

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How do the nervous and endocrine systems manage stress?

The nervous and endocrine systems work together to manage stress through the release of hormones like adrenaline and cortisol.

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What is the HPA axis?

The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a central pathway in stress response, leading to the release of cortisol from the adrenal glands.

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What is stress in wild animals?

Stress in wild animals is a response to environmental challenges, like predators, food scarcity, or extreme weather conditions.

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Study Notes

Proximate vs. Ultimate Causation

  • Proximate causation explains how a physiological process occurs, focusing on immediate mechanisms like molecular and cellular processes.
  • Ultimate causation explains why a process evolved, considering its adaptive value for survival and reproduction.
  • Example: In muscle contraction, proximate causation involves calcium ions, while ultimate causation explores the evolutionary advantage of movement.

Basic and Applied Physiology

  • Basic physiology investigates fundamental biological processes, such as organ function and cellular responses.
  • Applied physiology uses this knowledge to address practical problems, like improving health, enhancing animal husbandry, or developing treatments.
  • Example: Studying heart failure mechanisms to develop better treatments illustrates the connection.

Course Goals and Framework

  • Course goal: Explore physiological adaptations across species, including human adaptations.
  • Scope: Broad, encompassing molecular to whole organism physiology (from cellular mechanisms to ecological impacts).
  • Framework: Integrates theory with real-world applications through case studies and experimental research.

Energy and Flow

  • Potential energy: Stored energy in molecules (like glucose, fats) and electrochemical gradients (ion gradients).
  • Cellular level: Potential energy in ATP powers cell processes; electrochemical gradients fuel action potentials.
  • Cell membranes: Selectively permeable, with proteins governing gradients. The sodium-potassium pump establishes gradients for nerve impulses.

Essential Membrane Components

  • Selective permeability: Cell membranes control what enters and exits.
  • Proteins (ion channels, pumps, carriers): Key to creating and maintaining electrochemical gradients.
  • Lipid bilayer: Forms the membrane's basic structure, controlling passage.

Diarrheal Disease Treatment

  • Osmosis: Water movement across membranes from low to high solute concentration.
  • Active transport: Energy-dependent movement against concentration gradients (e.g., Na+/K+ pump).
  • Secondary active transport: Using ion gradients (e.g., sodium) to move other molecules (e.g., glucose absorption).
  • Oral rehydration therapy (ORT) leverages osmosis and secondary active transport to improve water and nutrient absorption in diarrheal diseases.

Electrical Beings

  • Neural signaling: Neurons transmit signals via electrical impulses, analogous to electrical wires.
  • Neuronal components: Dendrites receive signals; cell body processes them; axon transmits signals; synapses transmit between neurons.
  • Ion channels: Allow ion flow to create action potentials. Neurotransmitters facilitate signal transmission.

Neuron Evolution

  • Early neurons: Evolved from simple cell signaling in single-celled organisms.
  • Specialization: Evolved for complex communication; electrical synapses for faster signal transmission.

Synapses and Brains

  • Brain structure and function: Varies across species, from ganglia in simple organisms to specialized regions in mammals.
  • Synapse function: Variable and precise control through neurotransmitter release.
  • Model systems: Fruit flies, mice, and zebrafish are frequently used for studying the nervous system due to their genetics, accessible nervous systems, and ease of manipulation.

Muscle Building Blocks

  • Muscle proteins: Actin and myosin are key for movement via sliding-filament model. ATP powers myosin movement.
  • Movement variability: Controlled by varying protein concentration, arrangement, and calcium ion concentration in the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum.

Muscle Permeability and Ion Concentration

  • Membrane permeability (Na+, Ca2+): Crucial for muscle contractions as signals trigger calcium release.
  • Ion concentration gradients: Established by ion pumps (Na+/K+ pump) to generate necessary action potential charges.

Muscle Performance

  • Isotonic contraction: Muscle shortens or lengthens with constant tension (e.g., lifting).
  • Isometric contraction: Generates force without length change (e.g., pushing).
  • Force-speed tradeoff: Muscles can generate high force (slow) or move quickly (low force).
  • Energy supplies: Muscles use ATP; anaerobic (short bursts) and aerobic (long-term) respiration.
  • Muscle recovery and adaptation: Increased muscle size (hypertrophy) and adaptation over time.

Powerful Movement

  • Power maximization: Force-velocity relationship (sacrificing force for speed or greater force for slower movements).
  • Lever systems: Limb structures enhance muscle force.
  • Muscle fiber types: Fast-twitch (high force, short bursts) and slow-twitch (efficient, long-duration).

Circumventing Muscle Limitations

  • Mechanical systems: Tendons, levers amplify muscle force.
  • Elastic energy storage: In tendons (e.g., animals like kangaroos).

Therapeutic Techniques

  • Eccentric training: Increases tendon stiffness and efficiency.
  • Prosthetics and exoskeletons: Enhance muscle-tendon efficiency.

Pumps and Tubes

  • Circulatory systems: Small-scale flow (capillary exchange) connected to large-scale flow (heart-driven circulation).
  • Factors influencing circulatory systems: Size, environment, metabolic needs influence the type of circulatory systems (open vs. closed).
  • Evolution of hearts: Reflects needs for efficient nutrient distribution.

Gas Exchange

  • Partial pressure and solubility: Determine oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in blood.
  • Respiratory pigments: Increase oxygen-carrying capacity (e.g., hemoglobin).
  • Oxygen affinity variation: Species in low-oxygen environments have higher affinity.

Respiratory Systems

  • Energy efficiency in respiration: Systems are designed for minimal energy expenditure while maximizing gas exchange.
  • Countercurrent exchange: Maximizes gas exchange (e.g., in fish gills).
  • Bird adaptations at high altitudes: High-affinity hemoglobin and unidirectional air flow maximize oxygen uptake.

Water Balance and Homeostasis

  • Internal fluid compartments: Intracellular (ICF) and extracellular (ECF).
  • Homeostatic regulation: Variations in different environments (e.g., freshwater vs. saltwater fish).
  • Salmon adaptation: Physiologically switch between fresh and saltwater environments.

Excretion and Kidneys

  • Strategies for waste removal (ammonia, urea, uric acid).
  • Kidney function: Filtering blood, regulating water, salt, pH, excreting waste.
  • Nephrons: Filter blood, reabsorb vital substances, and secrete waste. Countercurrent exchange in the nephron.

Kidney Transplants

  • Building transplants: Mimicking kidney function; matching structure, vascular connections, and tissue compatibility.
  • Research on artificial kidneys and dialysis.

Feedback, Endocrine System, and Kidney

  • Feedback mechanisms: Negative feedback for homeostasis; positive feedback (e.g., childbirth).
  • Hormone specificity: Hormones interact with specific receptors on target cells.
  • Kidney feedback mechanisms: Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) regulates blood pressure and sodium.

Metabolism

  • Metabolism: Sum of all chemical reactions in an organism.
  • Metabolic rate measurement: Calorimetry or oxygen consumption.
  • Metabolic rate and body size: Larger animals generally have higher overall metabolic rates, while smaller animals have higher rates per unit mass.

Temperature Physiology

  • Knut Schmidt-Nielsen contributions: Comparative physiology, animal thermoregulation, and the heat balance equation.
  • Desert-tolerant camels: Adaptations for tolerating extreme temperatures and conserving water.
  • Heat balance equation: Accounts for radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation to regulate temperature.

Temperature Physiology and Climate Change

  • Performance curves: Show how performance varies with temperature.
  • Thermal optimal ranges: Ideal temperatures for peak performance, with declines at both extremes.
  • Pejus and critical temperature ranges: Reduced performance or survival at extreme temperatures.
  • Effects of global climate change: Implications for species in tropical vs. temperate zones.

Sensory Systems as Transducers

  • Sensory transducers: Biological systems converting stimuli into electrical signals.
  • Engineered transducers comparison.
  • Stimulus to neural signal: Receptor potential triggers action potentials.
  • Sensory systems study methods: Electrophysiology, behavioral assays, imaging.
  • Applications in human products: Prosthetic development, assistive technologies, sensory-based robotics.

Ears

  • Ear function: Detection of sound and balance.
  • Ear structure: Vertebrate ears (outer, middle, inner) and invertebrate variations.
  • Signal transduction: Sound vibrations converted into electrical signals.
  • Balance and equilibrium: Semicircular canals and otolith organs.
  • Study methods: Auditory brainstem response (ABR), postural sway tests, imaging.

Stress

  • Stress definition: Body's response to threats/challenges.
  • Endocrine, nervous, and immune responses: HPA axis, sympathetic nervous system, immune modulation.
  • Short-term vs. long-term stress outcomes: Adaptive vs. detrimental effects.

Stress Research in an Ecological Context

  • Stress in wild animals: Response to environmental challenges, affecting behavior and fitness.
  • Experimental stress studies: Exposures, physiological measurements, field studies.
  • Major stressors in wild animals: Predation, resources, environmental disturbances, manifested through behavior and physiology.

Reproduction and Endocrine Disruptors

  • Levels of analysis for reproductive systems: Molecular to whole organism.
  • Mammalian reproductive development: Influenced by genes, hormones (testosterone, estrogen).
  • Endocrine disruptors: Chemicals interfering with hormones, causing reproductive problems.
  • Major challenges in studying/assessing: Species sensitivity differences, subtle effects, long-term impacts.

Sleep

  • Sleep definition: Reversible state of reduced consciousness, essential for brain and body recovery.
  • Sleep stages: REM and non-REM sleep stages.
  • Hypotheses for sleep: Restoration, memory consolidation, evolutionary.
  • Testing hypotheses: Neuroimaging, sleep deprivation/manipulation experiments, sleep disorders.

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Test your understanding of key concepts in animal physiology, including proximate and ultimate causation, energy relationships in muscle contraction, and the distinctions between basic and applied physiology. Explore how these physiological principles relate to societal benefits and the scope of the field.

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