Ancient Rome: Expansion and Warfare

• Ancient Rome transitioned from a city-state to an empire through warfare.

The Beginnings of Rome

• Rome began as a city-state strategically located at a ford on the Tiber River.
• Rome frequently engaged in small conflicts with neighboring communities to acquire resources and control frontier territories.
• The Roman calendar designated March and October for festivals marking the start and end of the "war season."

Expansion of Roman Territory

• Rome established hegemony over smaller Latin communities.
• Rome was one of many city-states in central Italy until the 4th century BCE.

Equipment of Early Roman Warriors

• Roman warrior equipment became similar to that of Greek hoplites in the late 7th/early 6th century BCE (Archaic Period).
• Artistic depictions show foot soldiers with spears, helmets, and hoplite shields, wearing bronze or linen body armor.
• Chieftains rode on chariots, viewed as a means of transportation rather than a fighting platform.
• Cavalry, also armed like hoplites, were depicted.

Tactics of Early Roman Warfare

• Scholars doubt the existence of a sizable class of independent landowners forming a true hoplite army in phalanx formation because of Italy's elitist social structure.
• Soldiers with hoplite gear were likely few, supported by numerous light infantry.
• Roman hoplite-like soldiers used throwing spears and more open formations, similar to early Greek hoplites.
• Throwing spears remained a feature of Italian warfare longer than in Greece.
• Rome adopted a republican government with elected magistrates, a council, and popular assemblies by the 6th century BCE.

Timeline of Early Roman Conquest

• Rome annexed the Etruscan city of Veii in the early 4th century BCE.
• This annexation marked the beginning of Roman expansion in Central Italy; conquered communities largely became allies of Rome.
• The area under Roman control was called "imperium".
• During the second half of the 4th and early 3rd centuries BCE, Rome conquered Campania, leading to the "Samnite Wars" against Apennine highlanders.
• From 282-275 BCE, Rome fought a war against King Pyrrhus, resulting in the Roman conquest of South Italy.

The Evolution of the Roman Army

• Hoplite gear was prominent in the art of Central Italy during the 4th century BCE.
• Depictions may not be accurate, or they may emphasize hoplite weaponry for traditional prestige.
• Visual sources from Rome in the 3rd century BCE depict soldiers with long oval shields and open face helmets with folding cheek guards.
• Central and Southern Italy also had lighter equipment and more reliance on throwing spears/javelins.
• Use of this lighter gear and throwing spears may have influenced the Romans.
• Rome integrated these warriors into the army as allies.
• The "Montefortino" type bronze helmet became standard for Roman legions.

Citizen Army

• The Roman army operated as a militia until the 2nd century BCE.
• All citizens were eligible, with exceptions for those whose property fell below a minimum value (the Proletarii).
• Recruits armed themselves at their own expense.
• Armies were temporary, disbanded after campaigns.
• The state provided stipendium (military pay) in the 4th century BCE, which theoretically allowed the army to stay in service all year.
• Campaigns were usually a few weeks in summer.
• Rome did not usually employ mercenaries due to the large number of available citizens and allies.