Punic Wars: Causes and Lasting Peace

• The inquiry at hand involves a deep and layered historical question, exploring why wars persist, how peace truly happens, and whether decisive victory is a solution to long-standing conflict.

Punic Wars (264–146 BCE)

• Lasted approximately 118 years, consisting of three distinct wars between Rome and Carthage.
• A central cause was the economic and strategic rivalry, particularly the control over trade in the Mediterranean.
• Political ideology also played a role, with Rome and Carthage viewing each other as existential threats, making coexistence seem unviable.
• Mutual fear and revenge, stemming from humiliations in previous defeats, intensified hostility.
• Generational warfare contributed, with entire generations raised with cultural hatred of the other.
• There were approximately 20-year pauses between the wars, but both sides used this time to regroup, militarize, and nurse grievances.
• The war ended with Rome's total destruction of Carthage in the Third Punic War, a decisive victory that ended the war permanently but at a moral cost.

Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453)

• A conflict lasting 116 years, on-and-off, between England and France.
• The English kings' dynastic claims to the French throne through ancestry fueled the war.
• Feudal entanglements complicated matters, with the English king holding land in France as a vassal.
• Shifting alliances involving Burgundy, Brittany, Scotland, and other players further complicated the conflict.
• The war contributed to the rise of English and French national identities, intensifying hostilities.
• Several truces occurred, such as the Treaty of Brétigny in 1360, but often failed due to poor enforcement and opportunism.
• The French gained the upper hand with better tactics, Joan of Arc’s inspiration, and the use of artillery.
• England's internal strife, such as the Wars of the Roses, also distracted it, leading to attritional exhaustion and geopolitical change rather than a decisive one-battle victory.

Wars of the Roses (1455–1487)

• The intermittent conflict in England between the House of Lancaster and the House of York lasted approximately 32 years.
• Weak monarchy after Henry VI’s mental breakdown resulted in the absence of strong royal authority.
• Noble families used the conflict to pursue personal power, resulting in feudal rivalries.
• Cycles of revenge were common, with battles won and lost, and leaders executed or exiled, then replaced or avenged.
• Intermittent peace existed, like the temporary rule under Edward IV, but the throne changed hands multiple times, and loyalty was fluid.
• The war concluded when Henry Tudor (Henry VII) defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field.
• Henry Tudor then married into the rival family, uniting the houses, which resulted in political integration rather than military dominance.

Mongol Invasions (1206–1368)

• Over a century of conquest and rule by the Mongol Empire against various regions, including China, Persia, Russia, and Europe.
• Military superiority was a key factor, with fast cavalry, psychological warfare, and strategic genius.
• The regions invaded were politically disunited, making them easier to conquer.
• Even after Mongol political unity broke, Mongol khans ruled many regions for decades.
• After conquest, the Mongols often ruled peacefully, encouraging trade, known as Pax Mongolica, but rebellions and fragmentation led to later wars.
• Internal division among Mongol leaders, local uprisings, and disease weakened control, leading to slow erosion rather than a single decisive defeat.

Reconquista (711–1492)

• A conflict lasting approximately 781 years (though not constant fighting) between Christian kingdoms and Muslim-ruled Al-Andalus in Iberia.
• Religious governance was seen in existential terms, with Catholic versus Muslim views.
• Spain wasn’t unified, and Christian states were often divided and fought each other.
• Territories were retaken and lost many times over centuries, with cyclical conquests.
• Migration, conversions, and forced expulsions led to continuous cultural friction.
• Decades could pass in relative calm, and some Muslim and Christian rulers cooperated economically and politically.
• The fall of Granada in 1492 and the unification of Spain under Ferdinand and Isabella, backed by a religious mandate to expel non-Christians, ended the conflict.
• Decisive victory was achieved through inquisition and expulsion rather than just military means.

335 Years’ War (1651–1986)

• A largely symbolic war declared between the Netherlands and the Isles of Scilly with no actual fighting.
• The war was forgotten due to its insignificance.
• Formally ended in 1986 when a peace treaty was signed.
• There was perpetual quiet throughout the entire duration.
• Ended with a ceremonial peace declaration, illustrating some wars persist only on paper due to bureaucratic or diplomatic oversight.

Why wars keep reigniting:

• Unresolved grievances
• Power vacuums
• Vengeance culture
• Lack of enforcement of peace terms
• No integration or compromise between former enemies

What puts out a war for good:

• Decisive military victory, followed by structural change
• Political marriages and integration
• Exhaustion and shifting priorities
• Nation-building and ideological unification

Were there peaceful periods within wars?

• Often long wars have armistices and truces.
• Cold war phases also exist.
• Economic cooperation or interdependence can arise.
• These periods often act as pressure cookers rather than true peace.

Is decisive victory the best path to peace?

• It works best if followed by reconstruction, justice, and integration.
• Decisive victory without healing can sow future wars.
• Mutual compromise and building shared interests often create more stable peace but may be harder to achieve.