147 Questions
What is the function of the vocal folds in the larynx?
To prevent air passage
Which part of the trachea is composed of 16–20 C-shaped cartilage rings to prevent collapse?
Submucosa
What does the glottis do during Valsalva’s maneuver?
Closes to prevent exhalation
Which structure extends from the larynx to the main bronchi?
Trachea
What is the main purpose of the sphincter functions of the larynx?
To regulate air passage
Which layer of the trachea wall is made of connective tissue and encases C-shaped cartilage rings?
Adventitia
What are the two main functions of the respiratory system?
Supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
Which system is closely linked to the respiratory system?
Circulatory system
What are two additional functions of the respiratory system mentioned in the text?
Facilitate smelling and assist in vocalization
In how many phases does respiration occur according to the text?
Three
Which term best describes the process of gas exchange between the blood, lungs, and tissues?
Respiration
What is a primary function of the pharynx in the respiratory system?
Passage for air and food
Which part of the larynx prevents food or liquids from entering respiratory channels during swallowing?
Epiglottis
What is the framework of the larynx primarily composed of?
Hyaline cartilages
What is the opening between the vocal folds called?
Glottis
Which part of the larynx contains the Adam's apple?
Thyroid cartilage
What are the false vocal cords superior to within the larynx?
Vocal folds
What is the primary function of alveolar sacs?
Contain clusters of alveoli
Which type of epithelium makes up the alveolar walls?
Single layer of squamous epithelium
What is the function of cuboidal alveolar cells found in alveolar walls?
Secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins
Where do respiratory bronchioles lead into?
Alveolar sacs
Which structure in the respiratory zone is responsible for actual gas exchange?
Alveoli
Where do the lungs flank in the thoracic cavity?
Mediastinum
What effect does an increase in temperature, H+, and PCO2 have on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?
Decreases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen
In carbon dioxide transport, how is 70% of CO2 transported in the blood?
As bicarbonate ions in plasma
Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of creating bicarbonate from CO2 in red blood cells?
Carbonic anhydrase
What occurs in pulmonary capillaries during carbon dioxide transport?
Bicarbonate moves out of RBCs into plasma
What role does the bicarbonate buffer system play in blood pH regulation?
It helps blood resist changes in pH
How is excess H+ removed from the blood using the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system?
Combining with bicarbonate to form carbonic acid
What is the primary function of alveolar sacs?
Containing clusters of alveoli for gas exchange
Where do the lungs flank in the thoracic cavity?
Below the diaphragm
What is the composition of alveolar walls in the respiratory membrane?
Single layer of squamous epithelium with cuboidal cells producing surfactant
Which structure is responsible for allowing gas exchange across the respiratory membrane by simple diffusion?
Alveolar sacs
What is the root of the lungs?
Site of vascular and bronchial attachment to mediastinum
How many million alveoli make up most of lung volume?
~300 million alveoli
What is the primary function of the pleural fluid in the respiratory system?
Provides lubrication and surface tension for lung expansion and recoil
What is the primary role of lobules in the lungs?
Dividing the lungs into smaller functional units
Intrapulmonary pressure is also known as:
Intra-alveolar pressure
Which part of the thoracic cavity experiences a negative pressure during normal breathing?
Pleural cavity
What is the main composition of the stroma in the lungs?
Elastic connective tissue
Which statement best describes pulmonary ventilation?
Process of moving air into and out of the lungs
What is the main mechanical process involved in pulmonary ventilation?
Volume changes in thoracic cavity
During inspiration, what happens to the intrapulmonary pressure as the thoracic cavity volume increases?
Intrapulmonary pressure decreases
What leads to the flow of gases during pulmonary ventilation?
Pressure changes in the thoracic cavity
Which muscles are primarily responsible for increasing thoracic volume during inspiration?
External intercostal muscles
In which direction do gases move during pulmonary ventilation?
From an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure
What happens to air when the intrapulmonary and atmospheric pressures are equalized?
Air flows out of the lungs
What is the main difference between external respiration and internal respiration?
Internal respiration involves the exchange of gases between blood and lungs, while external respiration involves the exchange of gases between blood and tissues.
Which pulmonary function test measures the amount of gas forcibly expelled after taking a deep breath?
Forced vital capacity (FVC)
What does it indicate when patients with obstructive disease exhale less than 80% of FVC in the first second?
Obstructive disease affects air flow out of the lungs.
What is the primary difference between alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) and minute ventilation?
AVR measures gas flow into and out of alveoli, while minute ventilation measures total gas flow in the respiratory tract.
Which groups exhale 80% or more even with reduced Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)?
Patients with restrictive diseases
Why is Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR) considered a better indicator of effective ventilation compared to minute ventilation?
AVR accounts for anatomical dead space, providing a more accurate measure.
What happens when stretch receptors in pleurae and airways are stimulated by lung inflation?
They send inhibitory signals to end inhalation and allow expiration.
Which higher brain center modifies the rate and depth of respiration during breath-holding that occurs in anger or gasping with pain?
Hypothalamus
What triggers the pulmonary irritant reflexes that cause reflexive constriction of air passages?
Receptors in bronchioles responding to irritants like dust or noxious fumes
Which situation would lead to the activation of vagal nerve communication with respiratory centers in response to irritants?
Inhaling noxious fumes
What is the role of cortical controls in voluntary breath-holding?
To bypass medullary controls during voluntary breath-holding
What is the function of the inflation reflex, also known as the Hering-Breuer reflex?
To inhibit signals to medullary respiratory centers during exhalation
What is the function of erythropoietin produced by the kidneys?
Regulates RBC production
Which structure transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder?
Ureters
What is the primary function of the urinary bladder?
Temporary storage reservoir for urine
Which of the following is NOT a function of the kidneys in maintaining the body's internal environment?
Regulating calcium concentration in urine
What is the role of the urethra in the urinary system?
Transports urine out of the body
Which hormone produced by the kidneys is involved in regulating blood pressure?
Renin
Where is the right kidney located in relation to the left kidney?
Lower
What is the function of the peri-renal fat capsule around the kidney?
Provide support and protection to the kidney
Which structure sits atop each kidney?
Adrenal gland
Which region of the kidney is responsible for anchoring the adrenal gland and kidney to surrounding structures?
Renal fascia
What is the role of the fibrous capsule around the kidney?
Helps in holding the kidney in position
Where do ureters, renal blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter and exit the kidney?
Renal hilum
Which region of the kidney is composed of cone-shaped renal pyramids?
Renal medulla
What are the cup-shaped areas that collect urine draining from pyramidal papillae called?
Calices
Which part of the kidney contains smooth muscle that contracts to propel urine by peristalsis?
Renal pelvis
Where is the proximal convoluted tubule located in relation to the renal corpuscle?
Closest to the renal corpuscle
What connects the major calyces to the renal pelvis?
Ureters
How is urine flow described from the renal pyramid to the bladder?
Renal pyramid -> minor calyx -> major calyx -> renal pelvis -> ureter -> bladder
Which part of the nephron consists of a thin segment and a thick segment?
Nephron loop
Where is the renal cortex located in relation to the renal medulla?
Surrounding the renal medulla
What type of epithelial cells line the nephron loop (thin-segment) in the kidney?
Podocytes
Which part of the kidney is responsible for draining into the collecting duct?
Distal convoluted tubule
What is a characteristic feature of the glomerular capsule's parietal layer?
Highly folded basolateral membrane
In which part of the kidney would you find the fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus?
Renal corpuscle
Which part of the nephron is responsible for the reabsorption of water and sodium to maintain balance?
Proximal convoluted tubule
Where do the collecting ducts deliver urine through in the kidneys?
Renal pelvis
What is the major function of juxtamedullary nephrons in the kidneys?
Production of concentrated urine
Which structure in the nephron has highly infolded basolateral membranes and apical microvilli for increased surface area?
Proximal convoluted tubule
Where do the renal tubules in the kidneys associate with two capillary beds?
Glomerulus
What is the primary function of principal cells in the collecting ducts?
Reabsorption of water and sodium
What is the main function of peritubular capillaries in the nephron?
Adapted for absorption of water and solutes
Why is the blood pressure in the glomerulus high?
Arterioles are high-resistance vessels
Which vessels empty into peritubular capillaries or vasa recta?
Venules
How are peritubular capillaries different from other capillary beds?
Low-pressure vessels
Where do peritubular capillaries arise from?
Efferent arterioles
Where is the glomerular capsule located in the kidney?
Renal corpuscle
Which part of the nephron is farthest from the renal corpuscle?
Distal convoluted tubule
What type of cells line the thin segment of the nephron loop?
Nephron loop (thin-segment) cells
What is the function of the renal pelvis in the urinary system?
Deliver urine to the bladder
In which part of the kidney would you find fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus?
Renal cortex
Where is the primary site of urine collection before it is funneled into the renal pelvis?
Renal medulla
Which part of the kidney drains into the collecting duct?
Distal convoluted tubule
In the urinary system, what propels urine through the walls of the calyces, pelvis, and ureter?
Peristalsis
What is the primary function of intercalated cells in the collecting duct?
Secreting hydrogen ions and absorbing bicarbonate ions
Which structure forms cup-shaped areas that collect urine draining from pyramidal papillae?
Minor calyces
What is the role of renal columns in the structure of the kidney?
Separation of renal pyramids
What is the main function of major calyces in the urinary system?
Collect urine from minor calyces
What is the main function of the proximal convoluted tubule in the kidney?
Reabsorption of water and solutes from the filtrate
Where are cuboidal cells with dense microvilli that form a brush border found in the kidney?
Proximal convoluted tubule
Which structure in the nephron consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb?
Nephron loop
Where are cells with very few microvilli that function more in secretion than reabsorption found in the kidney?
Distal convoluted tubule
Which part of the kidney is responsible for reabsorption of water and solutes from the filtrate and secreting substances into it?
Renal cortex
Where do collecting ducts deliver urine through into minor calyces?
Papillae
Which part of the nephron plays an important role in the production of concentrated urine?
Ascending limb of the nephron loop
What is the main function of intercalated cells in the collecting ducts?
Secretion of potassium and acid
Where are the glomerular capillaries located in relation to the renal tubules?
Adjacent to the renal tubules
Which part of the nephron contains highly infolded basolateral membranes and apical microvilli for increased surface area?
Proximal convoluted tubule
What is the main function of principal cells in the collecting ducts?
Secretion of sodium
Which neurotransmitter do first-generation antipsychotic drugs primarily act on?
Dopamine
What is a common adverse effect associated with first-generation antipsychotic drugs?
Increased appetite
Which drug is classified as a mood stabilizer?
Lamotrigine
What is the primary mechanism of action of lithium carbonate in mood stabilization?
Enhancing GABA activity
Which anticonvulsant drug is available as sodium divalproex?
Valproate
What adverse effect is commonly associated with the use of carbamazepine?
Dizziness
Which classification of antidepressant drugs prohibits the consumption of foods high in tyramine?
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
Which antidepressant drug is associated with brands like Effexor XR and Pristiq?
Mirtazapine
Which antidepressant drug is classified as a Serotonin and norepinephrine disinhibitor (SNDI)?
Mirtazapine
Which antidepressant drug comes under the category of Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)?
Duloxetine hydrochloride
Which antidepressant drug is known by the brand name Remeron?
Mirtazapine
Which classification of antidepressant drugs interferes with the consumption of most other medications?
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
What is the primary function of antianxiety and hypnotic drugs such as Diazepam and Alprazolam?
Treatment of anxiety
Which neurotransmitter is not mentioned in the text as being targeted by psychotropic drugs?
Acetylcholine
What is a significant caution mentioned regarding the use of Benzodiazepines like Diazepam and Lorazepam?
Should not be mixed with alcohol or CNS-affecting drugs
Which drug is specifically mentioned as being used for the treatment of seizures?
Lorazepam
Which mental disorder is NOT specifically mentioned in the text as having a drug treatment?
Schizophrenia
What is the role of psychotropic drugs in relation to disturbances of mental function as mentioned in the text?
They elude investigators on how they improve symptoms
Which type of antipsychotic drugs are known to produce fewer extrapyramidal side effects?
Second-generation (atypical) antipsychotic drugs
Which atypical antipsychotic drug is specifically mentioned to be used for mania as well as psychosis?
Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
Which second-generation antipsychotic drug can lead to potentially fatal blood dyscrasia (neutropenia)?
Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
What neurotransmitters do second-generation (atypical) antipsychotic drugs target?
Dopamine and serotonin
Which second-generation antipsychotic drug can quickly control hyperactivity?
Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
What condition can anti-psychotics cause that is mentioned in the text?
Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS)
Which drug is classified as a short-acting sedative–hypnotic sleep agent?
Zopiclone (Imovane)
Which drug works by allowing more serotonin to be available at the synaptic gap?
Citalopram hydrobromide (Celexa)
Which drug is a melatonin receptor agonist?
Zopiclone (Imovane)
Which drug falls under the category of tricyclic antidepressants?
Nortriptyline hydrochloride (Aventyl, Norventyl)
Which drug is commonly used for anxiety and belongs to the benzodiazepine class?
Flurazepam (Dalmane)
Which drug is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor?
Paroxetine hydrochloride (Paxil)
Study Notes
Overview of the Respiratory System
- The respiratory system's major functions are to supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
- The system is closely coupled with the circulatory system
- Additionally, the respiratory system plays a role in olfaction (smell) and speech
Larynx (Voice Box)
- Consists of nine hyaline cartilages, connected by membranes and ligaments
- Has three functions:
- Provides a patent airway
- Routes air and food into proper channels
- Houses vocal cords for voice production
Trachea (Windpipe)
- Extends from larynx to main bronchi
- Composed of three layers: mucosa, submucosa, and adventitia
- Expands for breathing, with C-shaped cartilage rings that prevent collapse
Bronchi and Subdivisions
- Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
- Alveolar sacs contain clusters of alveoli, where gas exchange occurs
- Respiratory membrane is a blood-air barrier that allows gas exchange by simple diffusion
Lungs and Pleurae
- Lungs flank the mediastinum in the thoracic cavity
- Root of the lung is the site of vascular and bronchial attachment to the mediastinum
- Costal surface is in close contact with ribs, apex is the superior tip, and base rests on diaphragm
Oxygen Transport
- Oxygen is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions
- Influence of other factors (temperature, pH, PCO2) can modify the structure of hemoglobin, affecting oxygen unloading from the blood
Carbon Dioxide Transport
- CO2 is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved in plasma, as carbaminohemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions
- Reversible reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase in RBCs
Mechanics of Breathing
- Pulmonary ventilation consists of two phases: inspiration and expiration
- Inspiration is an active process involving inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals)
- Expiration is a passive process, with the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relaxing
Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity
-
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body
-
Intrapulmonary pressure is the pressure in the alveoli, which fluctuates with breathing
-
Intrapleural pressure is the pressure in the pleural cavity, always negative to keep lungs inflated### Renal Anatomy
-
The renal cortex is the superficial region of the kidney.
-
The renal medulla is the deep region, composed of cone-shaped medullary (renal) pyramids.
-
Renal pyramids are separated by renal columns.
-
A lobe is composed of a medullary pyramid and its surrounding cortical tissue, with approximately 8 lobes per kidney.
Internal Gross Anatomy
- The renal pelvis is a funnel-shaped tube that is continuous with the ureter.
- Branching extensions of the renal pelvis form minor calyces.
- Minor calyces are cup-shaped areas that collect urine draining from pyramidal papillae.
- Major calyces collect urine from minor calyces and empty into the renal pelvis.
- The walls of the calyces, pelvis, and ureter contain smooth muscle that contracts to propel urine by peristalsis.
Urine Flow
- The flow of urine is as follows: renal pyramid → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → bladder.
Blood and Nerve Supply
- The kidneys have a rich blood supply, with renal arteries delivering about 1/4 of cardiac output to the kidneys each minute.
- The renal cortex and medulla have distinct blood supplies.
Nephrons
- Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney.
- The renal tubule is approximately 3 cm long and consists of a single layer of epithelial cells.
- The renal tubule has three main parts: proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and distal convoluted tubule.
- Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) cells have dense microvilli and function in reabsorption and secretion.
- The nephron loop (Loop of Henle) is a U-shaped structure with descending and ascending limbs.
- Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) cells have few microvilli and function more in secretion than reabsorption.
- Collecting ducts receive filtrate from many nephrons and help maintain water and Na+ balance.
Types of Nephrons
- There are two major groups of nephrons: cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons.
- Cortical nephrons make up 85% of nephrons and are almost entirely in the cortex.
- Juxtamedullary nephrons have long nephron loops that deeply invade the medulla and play an important role in producing concentrated urine.
Nephron Capillary Beds
- Renal tubules are associated with two capillary beds: glomerulus and peritubular capillaries.
- Glomerulus is a high-pressure capillary bed specialized for filtration.
- Peritubular capillaries are low-pressure, porous capillaries adapted for absorption of water and solutes.
- Juxtamedullary nephrons are associated with vasa recta.
Test your knowledge on the anatomy of the larynx including structures like epiglottis, vocal folds, glottis, and cartilages. Explore functions such as sphincter action and Valsalva's maneuver.
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