Anatomy of the Larynx Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the function of the vocal folds in the larynx?

  • To prevent air passage (correct)
  • To propel mucus toward the pharynx
  • To stabilize the trunk during heavy lifting
  • To empty the rectum

    • Which part of the trachea is composed of 16–20 C-shaped cartilage rings to prevent collapse?

  • Mucosa
  • Adventitia
  • Inner lining
  • Submucosa (correct)

    • What does the glottis do during Valsalva’s maneuver?

  • Contracts abdominal muscles
  • Closes to prevent exhalation (correct)
  • Opens to facilitate inhalation
  • Produces mucus

    • Which structure extends from the larynx to the main bronchi?

    <p>Trachea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of the sphincter functions of the larynx?

    <p>To regulate air passage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the trachea wall is made of connective tissue and encases C-shaped cartilage rings?

    <p>Adventitia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two main functions of the respiratory system?

    <p>Supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which system is closely linked to the respiratory system?

    <p>Circulatory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are two additional functions of the respiratory system mentioned in the text?

    <p>Facilitate smelling and assist in vocalization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In how many phases does respiration occur according to the text?

    <p>Three</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term best describes the process of gas exchange between the blood, lungs, and tissues?

    <p>Respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary function of the pharynx in the respiratory system?

    <p>Passage for air and food</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the larynx prevents food or liquids from entering respiratory channels during swallowing?

    <p>Epiglottis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the framework of the larynx primarily composed of?

    <p>Hyaline cartilages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the opening between the vocal folds called?

    <p>Glottis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the larynx contains the Adam's apple?

    <p>Thyroid cartilage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the false vocal cords superior to within the larynx?

    <p>Vocal folds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of alveolar sacs?

    <p>Contain clusters of alveoli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of epithelium makes up the alveolar walls?

    <p>Single layer of squamous epithelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of cuboidal alveolar cells found in alveolar walls?

    <p>Secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do respiratory bronchioles lead into?

    <p>Alveolar sacs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the respiratory zone is responsible for actual gas exchange?

    <p>Alveoli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the lungs flank in the thoracic cavity?

    <p>Mediastinum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does an increase in temperature, H+, and PCO2 have on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?

    <p>Decreases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In carbon dioxide transport, how is 70% of CO2 transported in the blood?

    <p>As bicarbonate ions in plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme catalyzes the reaction of creating bicarbonate from CO2 in red blood cells?

    <p>Carbonic anhydrase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs in pulmonary capillaries during carbon dioxide transport?

    <p>Bicarbonate moves out of RBCs into plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the bicarbonate buffer system play in blood pH regulation?

    <p>It helps blood resist changes in pH</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is excess H+ removed from the blood using the carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system?

    <p>Combining with bicarbonate to form carbonic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of alveolar sacs?

    <p>Containing clusters of alveoli for gas exchange</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the lungs flank in the thoracic cavity?

    <p>Below the diaphragm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of alveolar walls in the respiratory membrane?

    <p>Single layer of squamous epithelium with cuboidal cells producing surfactant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for allowing gas exchange across the respiratory membrane by simple diffusion?

    <p>Alveolar sacs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the root of the lungs?

    <p>Site of vascular and bronchial attachment to mediastinum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many million alveoli make up most of lung volume?

    <p>~300 million alveoli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pleural fluid in the respiratory system?

    <p>Provides lubrication and surface tension for lung expansion and recoil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of lobules in the lungs?

    <p>Dividing the lungs into smaller functional units</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intrapulmonary pressure is also known as:

    <p>Intra-alveolar pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the thoracic cavity experiences a negative pressure during normal breathing?

    <p>Pleural cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main composition of the stroma in the lungs?

    <p>Elastic connective tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes pulmonary ventilation?

    <p>Process of moving air into and out of the lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main mechanical process involved in pulmonary ventilation?

    <p>Volume changes in thoracic cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During inspiration, what happens to the intrapulmonary pressure as the thoracic cavity volume increases?

    <p>Intrapulmonary pressure decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What leads to the flow of gases during pulmonary ventilation?

    <p>Pressure changes in the thoracic cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which muscles are primarily responsible for increasing thoracic volume during inspiration?

    <p>External intercostal muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which direction do gases move during pulmonary ventilation?

    <p>From an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to air when the intrapulmonary and atmospheric pressures are equalized?

    <p>Air flows out of the lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between external respiration and internal respiration?

    <p>Internal respiration involves the exchange of gases between blood and lungs, while external respiration involves the exchange of gases between blood and tissues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pulmonary function test measures the amount of gas forcibly expelled after taking a deep breath?

    <p>Forced vital capacity (FVC)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does it indicate when patients with obstructive disease exhale less than 80% of FVC in the first second?

    <p>Obstructive disease affects air flow out of the lungs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between alveolar ventilation rate (AVR) and minute ventilation?

    <p>AVR measures gas flow into and out of alveoli, while minute ventilation measures total gas flow in the respiratory tract.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which groups exhale 80% or more even with reduced Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)?

    <p>Patients with restrictive diseases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is Alveolar Ventilation Rate (AVR) considered a better indicator of effective ventilation compared to minute ventilation?

    <p>AVR accounts for anatomical dead space, providing a more accurate measure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when stretch receptors in pleurae and airways are stimulated by lung inflation?

    <p>They send inhibitory signals to end inhalation and allow expiration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which higher brain center modifies the rate and depth of respiration during breath-holding that occurs in anger or gasping with pain?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the pulmonary irritant reflexes that cause reflexive constriction of air passages?

    <p>Receptors in bronchioles responding to irritants like dust or noxious fumes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which situation would lead to the activation of vagal nerve communication with respiratory centers in response to irritants?

    <p>Inhaling noxious fumes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cortical controls in voluntary breath-holding?

    <p>To bypass medullary controls during voluntary breath-holding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the inflation reflex, also known as the Hering-Breuer reflex?

    <p>To inhibit signals to medullary respiratory centers during exhalation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of erythropoietin produced by the kidneys?

    <p>Regulates RBC production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure transports urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder?

    <p>Ureters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the urinary bladder?

    <p>Temporary storage reservoir for urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function of the kidneys in maintaining the body's internal environment?

    <p>Regulating calcium concentration in urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the urethra in the urinary system?

    <p>Transports urine out of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone produced by the kidneys is involved in regulating blood pressure?

    <p>Renin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the right kidney located in relation to the left kidney?

    <p>Lower</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the peri-renal fat capsule around the kidney?

    <p>Provide support and protection to the kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure sits atop each kidney?

    <p>Adrenal gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region of the kidney is responsible for anchoring the adrenal gland and kidney to surrounding structures?

    <p>Renal fascia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the fibrous capsule around the kidney?

    <p>Helps in holding the kidney in position</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do ureters, renal blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter and exit the kidney?

    <p>Renal hilum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region of the kidney is composed of cone-shaped renal pyramids?

    <p>Renal medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the cup-shaped areas that collect urine draining from pyramidal papillae called?

    <p>Calices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the kidney contains smooth muscle that contracts to propel urine by peristalsis?

    <p>Renal pelvis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the proximal convoluted tubule located in relation to the renal corpuscle?

    <p>Closest to the renal corpuscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What connects the major calyces to the renal pelvis?

    <p>Ureters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is urine flow described from the renal pyramid to the bladder?

    <p>Renal pyramid -&gt; minor calyx -&gt; major calyx -&gt; renal pelvis -&gt; ureter -&gt; bladder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron consists of a thin segment and a thick segment?

    <p>Nephron loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the renal cortex located in relation to the renal medulla?

    <p>Surrounding the renal medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelial cells line the nephron loop (thin-segment) in the kidney?

    <p>Podocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the kidney is responsible for draining into the collecting duct?

    <p>Distal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of the glomerular capsule's parietal layer?

    <p>Highly folded basolateral membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which part of the kidney would you find the fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus?

    <p>Renal corpuscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron is responsible for the reabsorption of water and sodium to maintain balance?

    <p>Proximal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the collecting ducts deliver urine through in the kidneys?

    <p>Renal pelvis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major function of juxtamedullary nephrons in the kidneys?

    <p>Production of concentrated urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the nephron has highly infolded basolateral membranes and apical microvilli for increased surface area?

    <p>Proximal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the renal tubules in the kidneys associate with two capillary beds?

    <p>Glomerulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of principal cells in the collecting ducts?

    <p>Reabsorption of water and sodium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of peritubular capillaries in the nephron?

    <p>Adapted for absorption of water and solutes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is the blood pressure in the glomerulus high?

    <p>Arterioles are high-resistance vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vessels empty into peritubular capillaries or vasa recta?

    <p>Venules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are peritubular capillaries different from other capillary beds?

    <p>Low-pressure vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do peritubular capillaries arise from?

    <p>Efferent arterioles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the glomerular capsule located in the kidney?

    <p>Renal corpuscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron is farthest from the renal corpuscle?

    <p>Distal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells line the thin segment of the nephron loop?

    <p>Nephron loop (thin-segment) cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the renal pelvis in the urinary system?

    <p>Deliver urine to the bladder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which part of the kidney would you find fenestrated endothelium of the glomerulus?

    <p>Renal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the primary site of urine collection before it is funneled into the renal pelvis?

    <p>Renal medulla</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the kidney drains into the collecting duct?

    <p>Distal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the urinary system, what propels urine through the walls of the calyces, pelvis, and ureter?

    <p>Peristalsis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of intercalated cells in the collecting duct?

    <p>Secreting hydrogen ions and absorbing bicarbonate ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure forms cup-shaped areas that collect urine draining from pyramidal papillae?

    <p>Minor calyces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of renal columns in the structure of the kidney?

    <p>Separation of renal pyramids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of major calyces in the urinary system?

    <p>Collect urine from minor calyces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the proximal convoluted tubule in the kidney?

    <p>Reabsorption of water and solutes from the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are cuboidal cells with dense microvilli that form a brush border found in the kidney?

    <p>Proximal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the nephron consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb?

    <p>Nephron loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are cells with very few microvilli that function more in secretion than reabsorption found in the kidney?

    <p>Distal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the kidney is responsible for reabsorption of water and solutes from the filtrate and secreting substances into it?

    <p>Renal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do collecting ducts deliver urine through into minor calyces?

    <p>Papillae</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron plays an important role in the production of concentrated urine?

    <p>Ascending limb of the nephron loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of intercalated cells in the collecting ducts?

    <p>Secretion of potassium and acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the glomerular capillaries located in relation to the renal tubules?

    <p>Adjacent to the renal tubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nephron contains highly infolded basolateral membranes and apical microvilli for increased surface area?

    <p>Proximal convoluted tubule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of principal cells in the collecting ducts?

    <p>Secretion of sodium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter do first-generation antipsychotic drugs primarily act on?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common adverse effect associated with first-generation antipsychotic drugs?

    <p>Increased appetite</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is classified as a mood stabilizer?

    <p>Lamotrigine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of action of lithium carbonate in mood stabilization?

    <p>Enhancing GABA activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which anticonvulsant drug is available as sodium divalproex?

    <p>Valproate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What adverse effect is commonly associated with the use of carbamazepine?

    <p>Dizziness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which classification of antidepressant drugs prohibits the consumption of foods high in tyramine?

    <p>Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which antidepressant drug is associated with brands like Effexor XR and Pristiq?

    <p>Mirtazapine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which antidepressant drug is classified as a Serotonin and norepinephrine disinhibitor (SNDI)?

    <p>Mirtazapine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which antidepressant drug comes under the category of Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)?

    <p>Duloxetine hydrochloride</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which antidepressant drug is known by the brand name Remeron?

    <p>Mirtazapine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which classification of antidepressant drugs interferes with the consumption of most other medications?

    <p>Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of antianxiety and hypnotic drugs such as Diazepam and Alprazolam?

    <p>Treatment of anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is not mentioned in the text as being targeted by psychotropic drugs?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant caution mentioned regarding the use of Benzodiazepines like Diazepam and Lorazepam?

    <p>Should not be mixed with alcohol or CNS-affecting drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is specifically mentioned as being used for the treatment of seizures?

    <p>Lorazepam</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mental disorder is NOT specifically mentioned in the text as having a drug treatment?

    <p>Schizophrenia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of psychotropic drugs in relation to disturbances of mental function as mentioned in the text?

    <p>They elude investigators on how they improve symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of antipsychotic drugs are known to produce fewer extrapyramidal side effects?

    <p>Second-generation (atypical) antipsychotic drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which atypical antipsychotic drug is specifically mentioned to be used for mania as well as psychosis?

    <p>Olanzapine (Zyprexa)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which second-generation antipsychotic drug can lead to potentially fatal blood dyscrasia (neutropenia)?

    <p>Olanzapine (Zyprexa)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What neurotransmitters do second-generation (atypical) antipsychotic drugs target?

    <p>Dopamine and serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which second-generation antipsychotic drug can quickly control hyperactivity?

    <p>Olanzapine (Zyprexa)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition can anti-psychotics cause that is mentioned in the text?

    <p>Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome (NMS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is classified as a short-acting sedative–hypnotic sleep agent?

    <p>Zopiclone (Imovane)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug works by allowing more serotonin to be available at the synaptic gap?

    <p>Citalopram hydrobromide (Celexa)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is a melatonin receptor agonist?

    <p>Zopiclone (Imovane)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug falls under the category of tricyclic antidepressants?

    <p>Nortriptyline hydrochloride (Aventyl, Norventyl)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is commonly used for anxiety and belongs to the benzodiazepine class?

    <p>Flurazepam (Dalmane)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor?

    <p>Paroxetine hydrochloride (Paxil)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Overview of the Respiratory System

    • The respiratory system's major functions are to supply the body with oxygen and remove carbon dioxide
    • The system is closely coupled with the circulatory system
    • Additionally, the respiratory system plays a role in olfaction (smell) and speech

    Larynx (Voice Box)

    • Consists of nine hyaline cartilages, connected by membranes and ligaments
    • Has three functions:
      • Provides a patent airway
      • Routes air and food into proper channels
      • Houses vocal cords for voice production

    Trachea (Windpipe)

    • Extends from larynx to main bronchi
    • Composed of three layers: mucosa, submucosa, and adventitia
    • Expands for breathing, with C-shaped cartilage rings that prevent collapse

    Bronchi and Subdivisions

    • Respiratory bronchioles lead to alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs
    • Alveolar sacs contain clusters of alveoli, where gas exchange occurs
    • Respiratory membrane is a blood-air barrier that allows gas exchange by simple diffusion

    Lungs and Pleurae

    • Lungs flank the mediastinum in the thoracic cavity
    • Root of the lung is the site of vascular and bronchial attachment to the mediastinum
    • Costal surface is in close contact with ribs, apex is the superior tip, and base rests on diaphragm

    Oxygen Transport

    • Oxygen is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved in plasma, bound to hemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions
    • Influence of other factors (temperature, pH, PCO2) can modify the structure of hemoglobin, affecting oxygen unloading from the blood

    Carbon Dioxide Transport

    • CO2 is transported in the blood in three forms: dissolved in plasma, as carbaminohemoglobin, and as bicarbonate ions
    • Reversible reaction catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase in RBCs

    Mechanics of Breathing

    • Pulmonary ventilation consists of two phases: inspiration and expiration
    • Inspiration is an active process involving inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals)
    • Expiration is a passive process, with the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relaxing

    Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity

    • Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body

    • Intrapulmonary pressure is the pressure in the alveoli, which fluctuates with breathing

    • Intrapleural pressure is the pressure in the pleural cavity, always negative to keep lungs inflated### Renal Anatomy

    • The renal cortex is the superficial region of the kidney.

    • The renal medulla is the deep region, composed of cone-shaped medullary (renal) pyramids.

    • Renal pyramids are separated by renal columns.

    • A lobe is composed of a medullary pyramid and its surrounding cortical tissue, with approximately 8 lobes per kidney.

    Internal Gross Anatomy

    • The renal pelvis is a funnel-shaped tube that is continuous with the ureter.
    • Branching extensions of the renal pelvis form minor calyces.
    • Minor calyces are cup-shaped areas that collect urine draining from pyramidal papillae.
    • Major calyces collect urine from minor calyces and empty into the renal pelvis.
    • The walls of the calyces, pelvis, and ureter contain smooth muscle that contracts to propel urine by peristalsis.

    Urine Flow

    • The flow of urine is as follows: renal pyramid → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → bladder.

    Blood and Nerve Supply

    • The kidneys have a rich blood supply, with renal arteries delivering about 1/4 of cardiac output to the kidneys each minute.
    • The renal cortex and medulla have distinct blood supplies.

    Nephrons

    • Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney.
    • The renal tubule is approximately 3 cm long and consists of a single layer of epithelial cells.
    • The renal tubule has three main parts: proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop, and distal convoluted tubule.
    • Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) cells have dense microvilli and function in reabsorption and secretion.
    • The nephron loop (Loop of Henle) is a U-shaped structure with descending and ascending limbs.
    • Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) cells have few microvilli and function more in secretion than reabsorption.
    • Collecting ducts receive filtrate from many nephrons and help maintain water and Na+ balance.

    Types of Nephrons

    • There are two major groups of nephrons: cortical nephrons and juxtamedullary nephrons.
    • Cortical nephrons make up 85% of nephrons and are almost entirely in the cortex.
    • Juxtamedullary nephrons have long nephron loops that deeply invade the medulla and play an important role in producing concentrated urine.

    Nephron Capillary Beds

    • Renal tubules are associated with two capillary beds: glomerulus and peritubular capillaries.
    • Glomerulus is a high-pressure capillary bed specialized for filtration.
    • Peritubular capillaries are low-pressure, porous capillaries adapted for absorption of water and solutes.
    • Juxtamedullary nephrons are associated with vasa recta.

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on the anatomy of the larynx including structures like epiglottis, vocal folds, glottis, and cartilages. Explore functions such as sphincter action and Valsalva's maneuver.

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