cbt 1.2 (2022)
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Questions and Answers

pada laring terdapat celah antara plika vokalis dan plika vestibularis, apa namanya?

  • ventrikulus (correct)
  • fisura laring
  • kriptus
  • foramen ovale

    • jika kekurangan zat besi dalam makanan dapat menyebabkan penyakit?

  • insomnia
  • anemia (correct)
  • leukimia
  • hepatitis

    • apa nama produksi terangsabg karena hipoksia?

  • TPO
  • faktor penstimulasi koloni
  • interleukin
  • EPO (correct)

    • substansi apakah yang memungkinkan sel induk tumbuh secara inkondusif

    <p>matriks intraseluler</p> Signup and view all the answers

    seorang atlet laki-laki 18 tahun melakukan pemeriksaan medical check up. kondisi nirmal apakah yang di cek?

    <p>denyut jantung</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apa yang menentukan pergeseran kurva disosiasi saturasi oksigen ke kanan?

    <p>peningkatan PCO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah struktur yang dapat dipakai sebagai penanda posisi costae 2 saat pemeriksaan fisik?

    <p>angulus sterni</p> Signup and view all the answers

    berapakah kadar normal HCO3 dalam plasma?

    <p>24 mEq/L</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah sel yang menjadi tolak ukur ukuran sel lain pada preparat?

    <p>eritrosit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apa yang berperan dalam pengaturan osmolaritas cairan ekstrasel?

    <p>vasopressin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    dari lapisan manakah sel epitel pita suara sejati dan palsu berasal?

    <p>endoderm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pembuluh kapiler darah sangat banyak, cirinya?

    <p>terdiri dari selapis endotel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    intake cairan laki laki dewasa normal?

    <p>2300</p> Signup and view all the answers

    terdapat hapusan histologis yang menunjukkan nukleus gelap, nukleus hampir mengisi seluruh sitoplasma, sitoplasma terlihat seperti cincin basofilik yang mengelilingi nukleus. Apa fungsi sel tersebut?

    <p>berperan dalam sistem imun</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pada sistem pencernaan, sari sari makanan akan diserao dan disalurkan ke seluruh tubuh, sel apa yang menyalurkannya?

    <p>plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    enzim pengaktivasi Fe adalah?

    <p>katalase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    efek peningkatan tekanan jaringan

    <p>meningkatkan aliran darah</p> Signup and view all the answers

    diantara ion berikut yang termasuk ion lemah?

    <p>P</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah yang memengaruhi aktivitas otot jantung pada penderita hipertiroid?

    <p>saraf simpatis di kedua ventrikel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    sadapan EKG antara lengan kiri dengan tungkai kiri disebut?

    <p>lead 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah yang terjadi bila pH darah menurun terhadap Hb?

    <p>penurunan afinitas terhadap O2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    berapa jumlah cairan transeluler?

    <p>1-2 liter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    seorang anak berumur 3 tahun dibawa ibunya ke poliklinik dengan keluhan sesak nafas. dokter mendiagnosis pasien menderita transposisi pembuluh darah besar. Apa penyebab kelainan di atas?

    <p>sekat trunkus dan konus berjalan lurus ke bawah</p> Signup and view all the answers

    jika sistolik 140 mmHg dan diastolik 80 mmHg, berapakah MAP nya?

    <p>100 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    difisiensi vitamin askirbik menyebabkan anemia. apakah jenis anemia pada kondisi tersebut?

    <p>hipokrom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah vitamin yang berkaitan debgan terjadinya anemia hemolitik?

    <p>E</p> Signup and view all the answers

    bagian apa yang dibatasi oleh sulcus coronarius

    <p>antara kedua atrium dengan kedua ventrikel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    bulk flow berupa filtrasi dan reabsorbsi. peristiwa dibawah ini yang menurunkan net filtration pressure adalah?

    <p>peningkatan tekanan onkotik darah</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah struktur yang melewati apertura thoracis superior?

    <p>apex pulmonaris</p> Signup and view all the answers

    berapakah jumlah pengeluaran cairan normal melalui feses ?

    <p>100 ml/hari</p> Signup and view all the answers

    dalam sediaan apus, gbaran sel histologi sel darah pada sediaan apus pasien tersebyt diketahui berasal dari pasien dengan kromosom 46XX. Sel apakah yangvdaoat ditemukan ciri tersebut?

    <p>neutrofil segmen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    buffer kimia yang bekerja sevara efektif di urine adalah

    <p>fosfat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    sistem konduksi jantung yang berdenyut 40-60 kali/menit?

    <p>AV node</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apa pehyebab dari kelainan jantunf berupa foramen ovalis yang menetap?

    <p>kecacatan septum sekundum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    seorang laki-laki berusia 53 tahun mendatangi dokter dan memiliki keluhan kaki kanan sakit digerakkan. pasien mengalamj kecelakaan motor yang menyebabkan benturan pada tungkai bawah. dokter curiga bahwa pasirn mengalami fraktur tertutup pada regio cruris. setelah pemeriksaan, dokter menemukan adanya fraktur cruris tertutup. kemudian, dokter melakukan pengecekan denyut pembuluh darah untuk mengetahui apakah terdapat penutupan pembuluh darah akibat fraktur tersebut. apakah nama pembuluh darah yang sedang dilakukan pengecekan oleh dokter?

    <p>dorsalis pedis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    manakah yang bukan merupakan perkembangan dari tubukus endokardial?

    <p>septum interatrial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    hasil pemecahan glutamin di tubulus proksimal yang menjaga keseimbangan asam basa?

    <p>ion HCO3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    yang mengalami kerusakan ketika mengalami penurunan CO adalah?

    <p>peningkatan O2 pada Hb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pada sediaan apusan darah, ditemukan nukleus debgan basofilik yang tidak jelas dan tertutupi oleh granula yang banyak. histologi sel apakah itu?

    <p>basofil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apa fungsi besi (Fe) dalam tubuh manusia?

    <p>pembentukan Hb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    seorang bayi laki-laki premature yang baru lahir tidak bernapas. dokter mengatakan bahwa bayi tersebut mengalami RDS. hal ini dapat terjadi karena kurangnya produksi surfactan. surfactan di produksi oleh?

    <p>sel pneumosit tipe 2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    tekanan parsial CO2 yang benar

    <p>46 mmHg di intrasel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    yang menggambarkan proses depolarisasi ventrikel adalah?

    <p>kompleks QRS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pada kontraksi jantung, ion Ca akan masuk ke dalam sel melalui?

    <p>tubulus T</p> Signup and view all the answers

    tempat perlekatan katup atrioventrikularis di ventrikel adalah?

    <p>anulus fibrosus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah yang terjadi pada fase kontraksi isovolumetrik?

    <p>penurunan tekanan aorta dan intra atrium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    berapakah jumlah normal K dalam plasma

    <p>3.7 - 5,2 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pernyataan yang benar terkait tekanan persial atmosphere

    <p>berbanding lurus dengan konsentrasi O2 di alveolus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    suatu sel darah berukuran plg besar dibandingkan dengan sel darah lainnya. bagaimana gambaran histologs dari nukleus sel darah tersebut?

    <p>bervariasi dari bundar atau oval hingga berbentuk seperti tapal kuda</p> Signup and view all the answers

    manakah di bawah ini yang bukan merupakan sel penyusun epitel respiratorius?

    <p>sel parietal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apa fungsi sinsitium

    <p>memastikan potensial aksi dihantarkan ke seluruh otot jantung</p> Signup and view all the answers

    laki-laki 20 th dibawa ke UGD krn kecelakaan. dokter simpulkan pasien mengalami dehidrasi krn kehilangan banyak darah. pembuluh darah pasien mengalami kolaps sehingga sulit memasabg infus untuk menggantikan cairan yang hilang. dokter akhirnya melakukan vena section yaitu tindakan mencari vena di bawha jaringan kulit debgab membuat sayatan dab diseksi jaringa di sekitar vena superfisial. apakah vena yang palung telat dilakukan tindakan oleh dokter tersebut?

    <p>vena saphena magna</p> Signup and view all the answers

    hormon apa yang mengatur reabsorbsi Na+ dan resistensi Na+ di tubulus distal ginjal?

    <p>RAA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    manakah pehyataab yang sesuai dengan fungsi limfe

    <p>menarik kelebihan protein di interstitium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pada metode pengukuran tekanan darah secara tidak langsung dengan menggunakan stetoskop, bunyi akan menghilang dan tidak terdengar sama sekali pada

    <p>korotkoff 5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    berapa kali lipat peningkatan aliran darah ke otot pada saat berolahraga?

    <p>25×</p> Signup and view all the answers

    sistem yang berperan dalam pengaturan kebutuhan cairan dan elektrolit

    <p>ginjal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    keadaan tubuh seseorang yang menderita DM adalah

    <p>asidosis metabolik</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah kelainan dalam bentuk asidosis metabolik dgn anion gap normal?

    <p>renal tubular asisdosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    fungsi musculus papilaris

    <p>mencegah katup menonjol ke arah atrium terlalu jauh selama kontraksi ventrikel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    substansi anorganik penyusun cairan tubuh

    <p>sulfat, fosfat, Na, K</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pengaturan proses filtrasi dan reabsorbsi pada kapiler diatur dalam hukum starling forces. yang memengaruhi agar cairan dari kapiler bergerak ke arah cairan interstitium?

    <p>tekanan hidrostatik kapiler dan tekanan onkotik koloid interstitium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apa yang dapat ditemukan dalam plasma saat alkalosis hipofosfofatemi

    <p>klorida tetap</p> Signup and view all the answers

    dengan apakah dibentuk ammonia yang bnyak diekskresikan di tubulus proksimal ginjal?

    <p>glutamin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah protein plasma yang berfungsi sebagai osmoregulator

    <p>transferin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pria 27 th pendaki gunung, baru selesai mendaki gunung tertinggi di dunia. sekarang ia sedang menjalani pemeriksaan kesehatan krna menderita hipoksia. apakah hasil pemeriksaan darah yang akan ditemukan?

    <p>kadar 2,3 DGP meningkat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    terdapat 3 jenis kapiler, ciri dari kapiler fenestrade

    <p>terdapat di ginjal, usus halus, dan kelenjar endokrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    perbedaan antara sel otot jantung dan sel otot skelet

    <p>sel otot jantung tidak memiliki potensial aksi istirahat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    pada saat jam olahraga, semua murid melakukan lari keliling lapangan. anak dg usia 18 th merupakan atlet renang, tidak mengalami kelelahan seperti teman temannya. manakah perubahan sistem respirasi yang dialami oleh anak tersebut?

    <p>peningkatan kapasitas difusi oksigen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    apakah pengaruh peningkatan kadar Ca2+ terhadap kontraksi jantung

    <p>penurunan komplek troponin/tropomiosin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Larynx and Vocal Folds

    • The space between the vocal folds (true vocal cords) and the vestibular folds (false vocal cords) in the larynx is called the rima glottidis.

    Iron Deficiency and Anemia

    • Iron deficiency can cause anemia, a condition characterized by a low red blood cell count.

    Hypoxia and Erythropoiesis

    • Hypoxia is a condition of low oxygen levels in the body.
    • The body responds to hypoxia by increasing the production of red blood cells, a process known as erythropoiesis.

    Stem Cells

    • Growth factors enable stem cells to proliferate and differentiate.

    Normal Conditions in Medical Checkups

    • A normal medical checkup for an 18-year-old male athlete would include assessments of:
      • Cardiovascular system: Heart rate, blood pressure, and electrocardiogram (ECG).
      • Respiratory system: Lung function, breathing patterns.
      • Musculoskeletal system: Range of motion, muscle strength, posture.
      • Metabolic health: Blood sugar levels, lipid profile.
      • Blood count: Red blood cell count, white blood cell count.
      • Urine analysis: Checks for potential infections or other abnormalities.

    Factors Influencing Oxygen Dissociation Curve

    • The factors that can shift the oxygen dissociation curve to the right include:
      • Increased temperature
      • Increased hydrogen ion concentration (acidity)
      • Increased carbon dioxide concentration
      • Increased 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) level

    Locating Rib 2

    • The sternal angle (angle of Louis) corresponds to the level of the second rib.

    Plasma Bicarbonate Levels

    • The normal range for plasma bicarbonate levels is 22-29 mEq/L.

    Standard Cell Size

    • Erythrocytes (red blood cells) are used as a standard for size comparison in histological preparations.

    Osmolarity Regulation

    • Sodium ions (Na+) are the primary regulator of extracellular fluid osmolarity.

    Vocal Fold Epithelium

    • Both the true and false vocal folds are covered by stratified squamous epithelium.

    Capillary Characteristics

    • Capillaries are thin-walled blood vessels with a dense network, allowing for efficient exchange of substances between blood and tissues.

    Fluid Intake

    • Normal daily water intake for an adult male is around 2-3 liters.

    Basophilic Nucleolus and Cytoplasm

    • Immature cells (blast cells) exhibit a large, dark nucleus that nearly fills the cytoplasm.

    Absorption and Nutrient Transport

    • Enterocytes (intestinal epithelial cells) are responsible for absorbing nutrients from the digested food and transporting them to the bloodstream.

    Iron Activation

    • Ferric reductase (also known as cytochrome b5 reductase) is the enzyme that activates iron (Fe).

    Weak Ion

    • Bicarbonate (HCO3-) is an example of a weak ion.

    Thyroid Hormone and Heart Function

    • Hyperthyroidism leads to an increased heart rate and contractility, due to the thyroid hormone's stimulatory effect on the cardiovascular system.

    EKG Lead

    • The recording between the left arm and left leg in an electrocardiogram is called Lead III.

    Blood pH and Hemoglobin

    • When blood pH decreases (becomes more acidic), hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen decreases, leading to a release of oxygen from hemoglobin into tissues.

    Extracellular Fluid Volume

    • Transcellular fluid constitutes around 2.5% of total body water.

    Transposition of Great Arteries

    • Transposition of great arteries is a congenital heart defect where the aorta arises from the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery arises from the left ventricle, resulting in a separation of the systemic and pulmonary circulations.

    Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP)

    • MAP is calculated as **Diastolic pressure + 1/3 (Systolic pressure - Diastolic pressure) **.
    • In this case, MAP would be approximately 93 mmHg.

    Vitamin Deficiency and Anemia

    • Scurvy, caused by a deficiency in vitamin C (ascorbic acid), can lead to hypochromic microcytic anemia, a type of anemia characterized by small, pale red blood cells.

    Hemolytic Anemia and Vitamin B12

    • Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) plays a crucial role in the formation of red blood cells.
    • Deficiency of vitamin B12 can cause pernicious anemia, a type of hemolytic anemia where the body destroys red blood cells prematurely.

    Sulcus Coronarius

    • The sulcus coronarius is a groove on the surface of the heart that separates the atria from the ventricles

    Net Filtration Pressure

    • Increased venous pressure reduces net filtration pressure, leading to a decrease in fluid movement out of capillaries.

    Structures Passing Through the Superior Thoracic Aperture

    • The structures that pass through the apertura thoracis superior include:
      • Blood vessels: Subclavian arteries and veins, common carotid arteries.
      • Nerves: Brachial plexus, vagus nerve, phrenic nerve.
      • Respiratory structures: Trachea, esophagus.

    Fecal Fluid Loss

    • Normal fluid loss through feces is around 100 ml/day.

    46XX Karyotype

    • A female karyotype is characterized by 46 chromosomes, with two X chromosomes (46XX).
    • Lymphocytes and neutrophils are examples of cells that can be found in a blood smear.

    Urine Buffer

    • Phosphate is a chemical buffer that acts effectively in urine.

    Conduction System Rhythm

    • The sinoatrial (SA) node is the primary pacemaker of the heart, generating a heart rate of approximately 60-100 beats per minute.

    Foramen Ovale Patent

    • Foramen ovale patent (PFO) is a condition where the foramen ovale, a hole between the right and left atria in a fetus, fails to close after birth.
    • The causes of this condition can vary, but it is often attributed to a developmental anomaly.

    Tibial Blood Vessels

    • The major blood vessel in the lower leg is the posterior tibial artery, which is checked for pulse to determine the presence of blood flow in the leg.

    Endocardial Cushion Development

    • The endocardial cushion is a specialized tissue that forms in the developing heart.
    • Its development gives rise to:
      • Atrioventricular valves: Mitral and tricuspid valves
      • Interventricular septum: Separates the ventricles
      • Atrial septum: Separates the atria

    Glutamine Metabolism

    • The breakdown of glutamine in the proximal tubules of the kidney, contributes to the formation of ammonia, which helps maintain acid-base balance.

    CO2 and Tissue Damage

    • Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a waste product of cellular metabolism.
    • Reduced CO2 levels can indicate impaired tissue function, such as decreased cellular respiration or impaired blood flow.

    Staining Features of Blood Cells

    • Granulocytes are characterized by their granulated cytoplasm.
    • The granules are responsible for containing enzymes and other substances that aid in the immune response.
    • Neutrophils, a type of granulocyte, have faintly basophilic nuclei with many granules that obscure the nucleus.

    Iron Function

    • Iron (Fe) is an essential mineral that plays a vital role in:
      • Oxygen transport: Hemoglobin, the protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells, requires iron.
      • Cellular respiration: The electron transport chain, a crucial part of cellular respiration, utilizes iron-containing enzymes.

    Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS)

    • Respiratory distress syndrome (RDS) is a condition that affects premature infants due to insufficient surfactant production.
    • Surfactant is a substance that reduces surface tension in the alveoli, allowing them to inflate properly.
    • Surfactan is produced by Type II pneumocytes, specialized cells in the alveoli.

    CO2 Partial Pressure

    • The partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2) in the blood reflects the amount of CO2 in the blood.
    • A normal PCO2 range is 35-45 mmHg.

    Ventricular Depolarization

    • Ventricular depolarization is the electrical activation of the ventricles, which leads to their contraction.
    • The QRS complex on an electrocardiogram (ECG) represents ventricular depolarization.

    Calcium Influx

    • Calcium ions (Ca2+) play a crucial role in muscle contraction, including heart muscle contraction.
    • During ventricular contraction, calcium enters the cell through L-type calcium channels.

    Valve Attachment

    • The atrioventricular valves (mitral and tricuspid valves) are attached to the ventricular walls by chordae tendineae, strong fibrous cords that prevent valve prolapse during ventricular contraction.

    Isovolumetric Contraction

    • Isovolumetric contraction is the phase of the cardiac cycle where the ventricle contracts but the volume of blood inside remains constant.
    • During this phase, all valves are closed.

    Plasma Potassium Levels

    • The normal range of potassium (K) levels in plasma is** 3.5-5.0 mEq/L**.

    Atmospheric Pressure

    • Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by the weight of the air above a surface.
    • It is approximately 760 mmHg at sea level.

    Cell Size and Nucleus

    • Lymphocytes, being the largest blood cells, have a large, prominent nucleus that occupies most of the cell.

    Respiratory Epithelium

    • Mucous glands are not part of the respiratory epithelium, even though they play a critical role in the respiratory system by secreting mucus that traps foreign particles.

    Syncytium Structure

    • A syncytium is a multinucleated structure formed when cells fuse together.
    • In the heart, cardiac muscle cells are connected via gap junctions, allowing for synchronized contractions.

    Superficial Vein Access

    • The cephalic vein is typically the last superficial vein to be accessed in a vena section procedure, as it lies deeper than other superficial veins.

    Sodium Regulation

    • Aldosterone, produced by the adrenal glands.
    • Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) regulates the reabsorption of sodium ions (Na+) in the distal tubules of the kidney.
    • Aldosterone promotes the reabsorption of sodium ions (Na+) and the excretion of potassium ions (K+).

    Lymphatic System Function

    • Lymphatic system is a network of vessels and tissues responsible for:
      • Fluid balance: Maintaining fluid balance in the body.
      • Immune defense: Transporting immune cells and lymphatic fluid to lymph nodes, which play a role in fighting infections.
      • Fat absorption: Absorbing fats from the digestive system and transporting them to the bloodstream.

    Korotkoff Sounds

    • When measuring blood pressure using a stethoscope, the fifth Korotkoff sound, the point at which the sound disappears, indicates the diastolic pressure.

    Exercise and Blood Flow

    • During exercise, blood flow to the muscles can increase by as much as 15 to 20 times compared to rest.

    Fluid and Electrolyte Regulation

    • The kidneys play a major role in regulating fluid and electrolyte balance, ensuring proper hydration and electrolyte concentrations in the body.

    Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

    • Individuals with DM have a hyperglycemic state, meaning they have high blood sugar levels.
    • This is due to impaired insulin production or insulin resistance.

    Metabolic Acidosis with Normal Anion Gap

    • Metabolic acidosis with a normal anion gap may be caused by conditions such as diarrhea or renal tubular acidosis.

    Papillary Muscles

    • Papillary muscles are finger-shaped muscle projections in the ventricles of the heart.
    • They are attached to the chordae tendineae, which, in turn, attach to the atrioventricular valves.
    • Their function is to prevent valve prolapse during ventricular contraction.

    Inorganic Substances in Body Fluids

    • Water is the main component of body fluids.
    • Electrolytes, such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-), calcium (Ca2+), and bicarbonate (HCO3-), are key inorganic substances that regulate fluid balance, nerve and muscle function, and acid-base balance.

    Starling Forces

    • The Starling forces determine the movement of fluid between capillaries and the surrounding interstitial fluid.
    • Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure and decreased interstitial hydrostatic pressure, along with other factors, promote fluid movement from the capillaries to the interstitial space.

    Plasma Changes in Alkalosis

    • Hypophosphatemia (low phosphate levels) is a finding that can be associated with alkalosis, a condition where blood pH is abnormally high.

    Ammonia Production

    • Glutamine is a non-essential amino acid that is deaminated to form ammonia in the proximal tubules of the kidney.
    • Ammonia plays a role in the excretion of acids and the regulation of acid-base balance.

    Osmoregulator Protein

    • Albumin is a major protein in plasma and is a significant contributor to the maintenance of blood osmolarity.

    Hipoxia and Blood Tests

    • A person experiencing hypoxia may show elevated levels of erythropoietin in their blood test results.
    • The body increases erythropoietin production in response to low oxygen levels to stimulate red blood cell production.

    Fenestrated Capillaries

    • Fenestrated capillaries are characterized by pores (fenestrations) in their walls that allow for increased exchange of fluids and small solutes between the blood and tissues.

    Cardiac and Skeletal Muscle Differences

    • Cardiac muscle is involuntary, meaning it contracts without conscious control, whereas skeletal muscle is voluntary, meaning it is under conscious control.
    • Cardiac muscle cells are interconnected via gap junctions, allowing for synchronized contraction, whereas skeletal muscle cells are not.

    Respiratory Changes During Exercise

    • Increased respiratory rate: This is a natural response to increased oxygen demand.
    • Increased tidal volume: The amount of air inhaled and exhaled with each breath increases.
    • Increased minute ventilation: The total volume of air moved in and out of the lungs per minute increases.
    • Enhanced alveolar ventilation: More efficient gas exchange occurs in the alveoli.

    Calcium and Heart Contractility

    • Increased calcium levels (Ca2+) enhance the contractility of the heart muscle.
    • Calcium binds to troponin, initiating the series of events that lead to muscle contraction.

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