Anatomy Final Study Guide

The study of the structure of the body and its parts.

The study of the function of the body and its parts.

The structure of a body part determines its function. The anatomy of a part is directly related to its ability to perform a specific task.

Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction.

The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.

A mechanism that reverses a deviation from the set point to maintain homeostasis.

A mechanism that enhances or amplifies a deviation from the set point.

Terms used to describe the location of body parts relative to one another (e.g., superior, inferior, anterior, posterior).

Thin tissue layers lining body cavities and covering organs; includes the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum.

Cohesion, high heat capacity, and solvent abilities make water essential for temperature regulation, chemical reactions, and transportation.

Ranges from 0-14. Acidic (pH < 7) has more H⁺ ions, neutral (pH = 7) has equal H⁺ and OH⁻ ions, and basic (pH > 7) has more OH⁻ ions.

Selectively permeable, controls the movement of substances through the phospholipid bilayer, proteins, and channels.

Diffusion: Movement from high to low concentration. Facilitated Diffusion: Transport using protein carriers or channels. Active Transport: Movement against concentration gradient using energy (ATP).

The passive movement of molecules or ions from an area of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached.

The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

Hypotonic: Solution with lower solute concentration, causing water to enter the cell. Isotonic: Equal solute concentrations, no net water movement. Hypertonic: Solution with higher solute concentration, causing water to leave the cell.

Endocytosis: Engulfing substances into vesicles. Types: phagocytosis (solid particles), pinocytosis (liquids). Exocytosis: Vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane to release substances outside the cell.

Double membrane, with an inner folded membrane (cristae) and a matrix. Produce ATP through cellular respiration.

Transcription: DNA is used to produce mRNA in the nucleus. Translation: mRNA is read by ribosomes to assemble proteins from amino acids.

DNA: Contains the genetic code. mRNA: Carries the genetic instructions to ribosomes. tRNA: Transfers amino acids to ribosomes. rRNA: A component of ribosomes that helps assemble proteins.

Programmed cell death, crucial for development and maintaining healthy tissues.

Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.

Covers surfaces and lines cavities. Tightly packed cells with little extracellular matrix. Avascular but innervated. Regenerates quickly.

Exocrine: Secrete substances into ducts (e.g., sweat glands). Endocrine: Secrete hormones into the bloodstream. Unicellular: Single-cell glands (e.g., goblet cells). Multicellular: Composed of many cells.

Binding, support, protection, insulation, energy storage, and transportation of substances.

Loose connective tissue: Supports and cushions organs. Dense connective tissue: Provides strength and flexibility. Cartilage: Resists compression and provides structure. Bone: Supports and protects. Blood: Transports nutrients and wastes.

Skeletal: Striated, voluntary, multinucleated. Cardiac: Striated, involuntary, intercalated discs. Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped cells.

Neurons: Conduct electrical impulses. Glia: Support, protect, and nourish neurons.

Line cavities open to the exterior; secrete mucus for protection and moisture.

Line closed body cavities; secrete serous fluid to reduce friction.

Line joint cavities; secrete synovial fluid for lubrication.

The outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelial cells; contains keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells.

Skin color is determined by melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin levels.

The middle layer of the skin composed of connective tissue; contains blood vessels, nerves, glands, and hair follicles.

Also called the hypodermis; composed of adipose and areolar tissue, providing insulation and cushioning.

Sebaceous glands: Produce sebum (oil). Sweat glands: Produce sweat for temperature regulation. Ceruminous glands: Produce earwax. Mammary glands: Produce milk.

The skin contains sensory receptors that detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.

Sweat production and blood vessel dilation or constriction help regulate body temperature.

Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.

Cartilage provides flexibility, reduces friction, and absorbs shock in joints.

Appositional growth: New layers added to the surface. Interstitial growth: Chondrocytes divide and secrete matrix within the cartilage.

Osteoblasts: Build bone. Osteocytes: Maintain bone. Osteoclasts: Break down bone.

Compact bone: Dense, organized into osteons, found in diaphyses. Spongy bone: Lattice-like, made of trabeculae, found in epiphyses.

Long, short, flat, irregular, and sesamoid bones.

Diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, medullary cavity, periosteum, and endosteum.

Cartilage model forms. Cartilage calcified. Primary ossification center develops in the diaphysis. Secondary ossification centers develop in the epiphysis. Growth continues at epiphyseal plates.

Hematoma formation. Fibrocartilaginous callus forms. Bony callus forms. Bone remodeling.

Terms include foramen (opening), process (projection), condyle (rounded protuberance), etc.

Frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, sphenoid, ethmoid, mandible, maxilla, zygomatic, nasal, lacrimal, etc.

Pectoral girdle: Clavicles and scapulae. Pelvic girdle: Hip bones (ilium, ischium, and pubis).

Clavicle and scapula.

Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.

Hip bones: Ilium, ischium, pubis. Male pelvis: Narrower, heavier. Female pelvis: Wider, lighter, larger pelvic inlet/outlet.

Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.

Structural: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial. Functional: Synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), diarthrosis (freely movable).

Bones joined by dense connective tissue; no joint cavity (e.g., sutures).

Synchondrosis: Hyaline cartilage (e.g., epiphyseal plates). Symphysis: Fibrocartilage (e.g., pubic symphysis).

Bones covered with articular cartilage, enclosed in a joint capsule, with synovial fluid.

Flexion/Extension: Decreasing vs. increasing angle. Plantar flexion/Dorsiflexion: Pointing toes vs. lifting toes. Abduction/Adduction: Away from vs. toward midline.

Rotation: Bone turns on its axis. Circumduction: Circular motion combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.

Skeletal: Striated, voluntary. Smooth: Non-striated, involuntary. Cardiac: Striated, involuntary.

Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, and T-tubules.

Actin: Thin filament. Myosin: Thick filament.

Z-line to Z-line; includes A band, I band, H zone, and M line.

Myosin heads bind to actin, pulling filaments together, shortening the sarcomere.

Origin: Fixed attachment point (e.g., humerus for biceps brachii). Insertion: Movable attachment point (e.g., radius for biceps brachii). Agonist: Primary muscle for a movement (e.g., biceps brachii in flexion). Antagonist: Opposes agonist (e.g., triceps brachii). Synergist: Assists agonist. Fixator: Stabilizes the origin. Prime mover: Main muscle responsible for movement.

First-class lever: Fulcrum in the middle (e.g., neck muscles lifting head). Second-class lever: Load in the middle (e.g., standing on toes). Third-class lever: Effort in the middle (e.g., biceps flexing forearm).

Example: Sternocleidomastoid Origin: Sternum and clavicle. Insertion: Mastoid process of the skull Action: Flexes and rotates the head.

Diaphragm: Increases thoracic volume for breathing. Intercostals: Elevate/depress ribs during respiration.

CNS: Brain and spinal cord. PNS: Nerves and ganglia.

Somatic: Controls voluntary movements. Autonomic: Controls involuntary functions (e.g., heart rate).

Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, axon terminals, and myelin sheath.

Soma: Houses nucleus, integrates signals. Dendrites: Receive signals. Axon: Transmits impulses.

Insulates axon, increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction.

By ion gradients, primarily Na+ and K+, and active transport (Na+/K+ pump).

Cylindrical, extends from medulla to L2; divided into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions.

Dura mater: Outermost layer. Arachnoid mater: Middle layer. Pia mater: Innermost layer.

Sensory receptor → Sensory neuron → Integration center → Motor neuron → Effector.

Cervical (8 pairs). Thoracic (12 pairs). Lumbar (5 pairs). Sacral (5 pairs). Coccygeal (1 pair).

Midbrain: Processes visual and auditory information. Pons: Relays signals between cerebrum and cerebellum. Medulla oblongata: Regulates vital functions (e.g., heart rate).

Thalamus: Sensory relay station. Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis.

Protects the brain by restricting the passage of harmful substances from the blood.

Examples: I (Olfactory): Smell. II (Optic): Vision. X (Vagus): Parasympathetic control of heart and digestive organs.

Somatic receptors: Detect touch, pressure, pain, and temperature. Visceral receptors: Detect changes in organs.

Receptor potentials: Initiate action potentials in sensory neurons. Adaptation: Decreased sensitivity to a constant stimulus.

Maintains wakefulness and consciousness.

Olfactory neurons have cilia that bind odorants, triggering action potentials.

Contains gustatory cells with receptors for different tastes (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami).

Rods: Detect light intensity, function in dim light. Cones: Detect color, function in bright light.

Regulates involuntary body functions (e.g., heart rate, digestion).

Sympathetic: Fight-or-flight responses. Parasympathetic: Rest-and-digest activities.

Preganglionic neurons in thoracic and lumbar regions; ganglia near spinal cord.

Most organs receive input from both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.