Anatomy Final Study Guide

Anatomy Final Study Guide - Study Notes

Anatomy: The study of body structure.
Physiology: The study of body function.
Structure and Function Relationship: Structure dictates function. Anatomical details dictate what a body part can do.
Characteristics of Life: Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, and reproduction.
Homeostasis: Maintaining a stable internal environment, despite external changes.
Negative Feedback: Mechanisms that reverse deviations from a set point to maintain homeostasis.
Positive Feedback: Mechanisms that amplify deviations from a set point.
Directional Terms: Terms describing location of body parts relative to others (superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, etc).
Serous Membranes: Thin tissue layers lining body cavities and covering organs (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).
Water's Physiological Functions: Cohesion, high heat capacity, and solvent abilities are critical for temperature regulation, chemical reactions, and transport.
pH Scale: Ranges from 0-14, measuring acidity and basicity. Acidic solutions have more hydrogen ions (H⁺). Neutral solutions have equal H⁺ and OH⁻. Basic solutions have more hydroxide ions (OH⁻).
Plasma Membrane: Selectively permeable, controlling substance passage via phospholipid bilayer, proteins, and channels.
Membrane Passage Mechanisms: Diffusion (high to low concentration), facilitated diffusion (carrier proteins), active transport (energy-dependent, against concentration gradient).
Diffusion: Passive movement from high to low concentration until equilibrium.
Osmosis: Water moves across a selectively permeable membrane from low to high solute concentration.
Solutions and Cell Behavior: Hypotonic (water enters cell), isotonic (no net movement), hypertonic (water leaves cell).
Endocytosis/Exocytosis: Endocytosis: Cell takes in materials. Exocytosis: Cell releases materials. Types: Phagocytosis (solids), pinocytosis (liquids).
Mitochondria: Double membrane organelles; produce ATP through cellular respiration; contain cristae and matrix.
Gene Expression: Two-step process of creating proteins: Transcription (DNA to mRNA) and translation (mRNA to protein).
Molecules in Protein Production: DNA: Codes; mRNA: Messenger; tRNA: Transfers amino acids; rRNA: Part of ribosomes (protein synthesis).
Apoptosis: Programmed cell death for development and tissue maintenance.
Primary Tissue Types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissues.
Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, tightly packed, avascular but innervated, regenerates quickly.
Glands (Exocrine/Endocrine): Exocrine: Secrete into ducts; endocrine: Secrete hormones into blood. Multicellular/Unicellular.
Connective Tissue Functions: Binding, support, protection, insulation, energy storage, transportation.
Connective Tissue Types & Functions: Loose connective: Support/cushion. Dense connective: Strength/flexibility. Cartilage: Resist compression. Bone: Support/protection. Blood: Transports.
Muscle Tissue Types: Skeletal (striated, voluntary, multinucleated), cardiac (striated, involuntary, intercalated discs), smooth (non-striated, involuntary, spindle-shaped).
Nervous Tissue Components: Neurons (electrical impulses) and glia (support cells).
Membranes (Mucous, Serous, Synovial): Mucous: Line exterior cavities, secrete mucus. Serous: Line closed cavities, secrete serous fluid. Synovial: Line joint cavities, secrete synovial fluid.
Epidermis: Outer skin layer, stratified squamous epithelium, keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells.
Skin Color Factors: Melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin levels.
Dermis: Middle skin layer; connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, glands, hair follicles.
Subcutaneous Tissue (Hypodermis): Adipose and areolar tissue; insulation and cushioning.
Skin Glands: Sebaceous (oil), sweat (temperature regulation), ceruminous (earwax), mammary (milk).
Skin as a Sensory Organ: Contains receptors for touch, pressure, pain, and temperature.
Skin's Temperature Regulation: Sweating and blood vessel dilation/constriction.
Skeletal System Components: Bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints.
Cartilage's Importance: Flexibility, friction reduction, shock absorption.
Cartilage Growth: Appositional (surface addition), interstitial (within matrix).
Bone Cells: Osteoblasts (build), osteocytes (maintain), osteoclasts (break down).
Compact/Spongy Bone: Compact: Dense, osteons. Spongy: Lattice-like, trabeculae.
Bone Classification: Long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid.
Long Bone Parts: Diaphysis, epiphysis, metaphysis, medullary cavity, periosteum, endosteum.
Endochondral Ossification: Cartilage model → Calcification → Primary ossification → Secondary ossification → Growth at epiphyseal plates.
Bone Repair Steps: Hematoma → Fibrocartilaginous callus → Bony callus → Bone remodeling.
Bone Features (Anatomical Terms): Foramen, process, condyle, etc.
Appendicular Skeleton Girdles: Pectoral (clavicle, scapula); Pelvic (ilium, ischium, pubis).
Upper Limb Bones: Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges.
Pelvis Differences (Male/Female): Male: Narrower, heavier; Female: Wider, lighter, larger inlet/outlet.
Lower Limb Bones: Femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges.
Joint Classification: Structural (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and Functional (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis).
Fibrous Joint: Dense connective tissue, no joint cavity.
Cartilaginous Joints: Synchondrosis (hyaline cartilage), symphysis (fibrocartilage).
Synovial Joint Structure: Articular cartilage, joint capsule, synovial fluid.
Joint Movements: Flexion/extension, plantar flexion/dorsiflexion, abduction/adduction, rotation, circumduction.
Muscle Tissue Characteristics: Skeletal (striated, voluntary), smooth (non-striated, involuntary), cardiac (striated, involuntary).
Muscle Fiber Components: Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, myofibrils, sarcoplasmic reticulum, T-tubules.
Myofilaments: Actin (thin), myosin (thick).
Sarcomere Arrangement: Z-line to Z-line, A band, I band, H zone, M line.
Sliding Filament Model: Myosin heads pull actin filaments, shortening sarcomere.
Muscle Actions/Names: Origin, insertion, agonist, antagonist, synergist, fixator, prime mover.
Lever Systems (Classes): First-class (fulcrum middle), second-class (load middle), third-class (effort middle).
Thoracic Muscles: Diaphragm, intercostals (breathing).
Nervous System Divisions: CNS (brain and spinal cord), PNS (nerves and ganglia).
Nervous System Functions: Somatic (voluntary); Autonomic (involuntary).
Neuron Structure: Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, axon terminals, myelin sheath.
Neuron Functions (parts): Soma (integrates signals), dendrites (receive signals), axon (transmits).
Myelin Sheath Function: Insulation, increases nerve impulse speed.
Resting Membrane Potential: Created and maintained by ion gradients (Na⁺, K⁺) and active transport (Na⁺/K⁺ pump).
Spinal Cord Structure: Cylindrical, divided into regions (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal).
Meninges/Spaces: Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater.
Reflex Arc: Sensory receptor → Sensory neuron → Integration center → Motor neuron → Effector.
Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal).
Brainstem Parts & Characteristics: Midbrain (visual/auditory), pons (relay), medulla oblongata (vital functions).
Diencephalon Parts & Functions: Thalamus (sensory relay), hypothalamus (homeostasis).
Blood-Brain Barrier: Protects brain from harmful substances.
Cranial Nerves (12): Sensory/motor functions (examples: olfactory, optic, vagus).
Sensory Receptors: Somatic (touch, pressure, pain, temperature); Visceral (organs).
Receptor Potentials and Adaptation: Receptor potentials initiate action potentials, adaptation decreases sensitivity to constant stimuli.
Reticular Activating System (RAS): Maintains wakefulness and consciousness.
Olfactory Neurons: Detect airborne molecules; initiate action potentials.
Taste Buds: Contain gustatory cells with receptors for taste (sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami).
Rods and Cones: Rods (light intensity, dim light), Cones (color, bright light).
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates involuntary body functions.
ANS Divisions: Sympathetic (fight-or-flight); Parasympathetic (rest-and-digest).
Sympathetic Neurons/Ganglia: Preganglionic neurons in thoracic/lumbar regions; ganglia near spinal cord.
Dual Innervation (ANS): Most organs receive input from both systems.