Anatomy diagrams

Comprehensive Study Guide for Jonathan

• This study guide provides labeled diagrams and visual references for exam preparation.
• It focuses on key concepts and structures in diagrams.

Olfactory System

• Key structures include:
  • Olfactory Bulb: A rounded structure at the base of the frontal lobe.
  • Olfactory Tract: Connects the olfactory bulb to the brain.
  • Olfactory Neurons: Located in the nasal epithelium; send signals to the olfactory bulb.
• Study tip: Note how olfactory neurons extend through the cribriform plate to connect with the olfactory bulb.

Eye Anatomy

• Tunics of the Eye (superficial to deep):
  • Fibrous Tunic (Sclera): Outermost layer, the white of the eye.
  • Vascular Tunic (Choroid): Middle layer containing blood vessels.
  • Nervous Tunic (Retina): Innermost layer with photoreceptors.
• Key structures include:
  • Cornea: Clear front part of the eye covering the iris and pupil.
  • Iris: Colored part of the eye regulating light entry.
  • Lens: Transparent structure focusing light onto the retina.
  • Optic Disc: The "blind spot" where the optic nerve exits the eye.
  • Fovea Centralis: Center of the macula, for sharpest vision.
• Additional Note: The lacrimal gland produces tears and is in the upper outer portion of the eye orbit.

Ear Anatomy

• Key structures include:
  • Vestibulocochlear Nerve: Cranial nerve VIII, responsible for hearing and balance.
  • External Acoustic Meatus: The ear canal.
  • Tympanic Membrane: The eardrum.
  • Cochlea: Spiral-shaped organ of hearing.
  • Semicircular Canals: Three fluid-filled structures for balance.

Endocrine System

• Key endocrine glands:
  • Hypothalamus
  • Pituitary Gland (anterior and posterior)
  • Thyroid Gland
  • Parathyroid Glands
  • Adrenal Glands (cortex and medulla)
  • Pancreas
  • Gonads (testes/ovaries)
• Key hormone pathways include:
  • Thyroid Hormone Pathway: TRH (Hypothalamus) → TSH (Anterior Pituitary) → T3/T4 (Thyroid)
  • Adrenal Hormone Production:
    • Cortex: Produces cortisol.
    • Medulla: Produces aldosterone and angiotensin.
  • Posterior Pituitary Hormones: ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone), released when dehydrated, helps retain blood volume.

Lymphatic System

• Lymph nodes to identify:
  • Cervical (neck)
  • Axillary (armpit)
  • Inguinal (groin)
  • Tonsils
• Lymphatic flow order: Lymphatic Capillaries → Lymphatic Vessels → Lymph Nodes → Lymphatic Trunks → Lymphatic Ducts
• Key ducts to identify:
  • Thoracic Duct
  • Right Lymphatic Duct
  • Azygos Vein
  • Hemiazygos Vein
• Spleen components:
  • Red Pulp: Blood filtering
  • White Pulp: Immune function

Immunity

• Steps of the Inflammatory Response:
  • Bacteria enters tissue
  • Tissue damage occurs
  • Chemical mediators are released
  • Chemotaxis increases white blood cell numbers
  • Bacteria are contained
  • Bacteria are eliminated
  • Tissue is repaired
    • This is a positive feedback loop
• White Blood Cell Types and Functions:
  • Neutrophils: Multi-lobed nucleus, phagocytosis of bacteria.
  • Eosinophils: Bi-lobed nucleus with red granules, combats parasites and allergic responses.
  • Basophils: S-shaped nucleus with dark purple granules, releases histamine during inflammation.
  • Lymphocytes: Large round nucleus, small cytoplasm; B cells (antibody production), T cells (cell-mediated immunity).
  • Monocytes: Large kidney-shaped nucleus, differentiates into macrophages.
• MHC Molecules:
  • MHC Class I: Present on all nucleated cells; signals "kill me" to cytotoxic T cells if infected.
  • MHC Class II: Present on antigen-presenting cells; activates helper T cells.
• Key Concepts:
  • B and T cells originate in bone marrow, but T cells mature in the thymus.
  • B cells become plasma cells that produce antibodies.
  • Interferons are produced in response to viral infections.
  • Self-antigens are produced by our own body.

Blood

• Blood Types and Antigens:
  • Type A: A antigens, Anti-B antibodies.
  • Type B: B antigens, Anti-A antibodies.
  • Type AB: A and B antigens, no antibodies.
  • Type O: No antigens, Anti-A and Anti-B antibodies.

Blood Vessels

• Layers (from outside to inside):
  • Tunica Externa: Outer connective tissue layer.
  • Tunica Media: Middle smooth muscle layer.
  • Tunica Intima: Inner endothelial layer.
• Aortic Arch Branches:
  • Brachiocephalic Trunk (divides into right subclavian and right common carotid)
  • Left Common Carotid Artery
  • Left Subclavian Artery
• Blood Pathway from Aorta to Brain: Aorta → Common Carotid Artery → Internal Carotid Artery → Circle of Willis → Cerebral Arteries → Brain
• Blood Pathway from Aorta to Fingertips and Back:
  • Arterial Path: Aorta → Subclavian → Axillary → Brachial → Radial/Ulnar → Hand arteries → Digital arteries → Capillaries
  • Venous Return: Capillaries → Digital veins → Hand veins → Radial/Ulnar → Brachial → Axillary → Subclavian → Superior Vena Cava → Right Atrium
• Veins contain valves to prevent backflow and hold more blood than arteries.

Study Tips

• Use images to practice identifying structures without labels.
• Create flashcards for pathways and processes.
• Draw hormone cascades to memorize the sequence.
• Practice labeling the tunics of the eye and blood vessels.
• Review inflammatory response steps as a sequence.

Enhancement Suggestions

• Add thorough descriptions of each section.
• Include specific clarifying information and data.
• Add more high-quality, relevant photos.
• Incorporate mind map pathway photos.
• Ensure all elements are organized and labeled.