Anatomy and Physiology Review

• Anatomy is the study of body structures and their relationships.
• Physiology studies the functions of the body.

Levels of Organization

• Chemical level is the smallest, followed by cellular, tissue, organ, system, and organismal levels, which is the largest.
• Glycogen represents stored glucose at the chemical level.
• The most abundant molecules of life include carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• The cell is the smallest living unit.
• Tissues are groups of cells with a similar structure and function. Examples include connective, epithelial, nervous, and muscle tissues.
• Organs combine different tissue types performing specific functions.
• Systems consist of multiple organs working together for common functions like the skin, bones/joints, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems.
• Homeostasis refers to the body's equilibrium, maintained by the contributions of the whole body, and its interruption can be triggered by physical insults, changes in the internal environment, physiological stress, and disruptions.
• An imbalance can manifest as objective signs (fever, swelling) and subjective symptoms (headache, pain).
• Body fluids are watery solutions of dissolved chemicals, categorized as intracellular (ICF, 2/3 of total volume in cells) and extracellular (ECF, 1/3 of total volume outside cells).
• Extracellular fluids occur in the aqueous and vitreous humors of the eye, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), blood plasma, synovial fluid, and lymph.
• Disease diagnosis includes collecting signs, symptoms, medical history, and physical examination.
• Non-invasive diagnostics involve techniques such as palpation, auscultation, percussion, and medical imaging (X-ray, MRI, CT scan).
• Anatomical position is the body's reference point for directional terms.

Directional Terms

• Anterior refers to the front, while posterior refers to the back.
• Superior means above, and inferior means below.
• Cranial is from feet to head, and caudal is from head to feet.
• Midline is the body's or limb's middle line.
• Medial is towards the midline, and lateral is away from the midline.
• Ipsilateral means the same side of the midline, while contralateral means the opposite side of the midline.
• Proximal is closer to the trunk, while distal is farther from the trunk.
• Superficial is closer to the surface, such as skin; deep is closer to the inside of the body.

Anatomical Planes

• The frontal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
• The Sagittal plane divides the body into left and right parts.
• The transverse plane divides the body into top and bottom parts.

Skeleton

• The appendicular skeleton includes the upper and lower limbs along with the shoulder and pelvic girdles.

Muscles and Joints

• Muscles mainly attach to bones.
• Muscles move closer to the origin point from the insertion point.
• Joints consist of two or more bones plus ligaments.

Major Muscle Groups

• Key muscle groups: pectorals, latissimus dorsi, rotator cuff, biceps, triceps, forearm flexors, forearm extensors, hand muscles, quadriceps, hamstrings, foot dorsiflexors, foot plantar flexors, foot muscles, suboccipital, flexors on neck, erector spine, abdominals.

Chemical Level of Organization

• Chemical elements cannot be broken down into simpler substances.

Structure of Atoms

• The atomic number signifies protons in an atom.
• The mass number is the sum of protons and neutrons, indicating the atom's weight.

Ions and Molecules

• Ions are atoms that gain or lose electrons, like Na+.
• Molecules form when atoms share electrons, such as H2O.

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic bonds form when atoms gain or lose electrons; cations (+) and anions (-) are attracted.
• Covalent bonds occur when atoms share electrons.
• Single covalent bonds share one electron pair, double covalent bonds share two electron pairs, and triple covalent bonds share three electron pairs.
• Nonpolar covalent bonds involve equally shared electrons, while polar covalent bonds involve unequally shared electrons.

Other Chemical Bonds

• Hydrogen bonds are polar covalent bonds between hydrogen and other atoms.

Chemical Reactions

• Reactions occur when valence shell electrons are shared or transferred.
• Exergonic reactions release energy as heat
• Endergonic reactions require added energy to form a bond
• Catalysts accelerate chemical reactions by reducing activation energy.
• Synthesis reactions (A+B = AB) are endergonic
• Decomposition ones (AB = A+B) are exergonic
• Exchange reactions (AB+CD = AD + CB) and reversible reactions (AC == A+C).
• Metabolism refers to the sum of all chemical reactions in the body.

Essential Biomolecules

• Inorganic compounds lack carbon and are simpler, like water, salts, acids, and bases.
• Organic compounds contain carbon and are covalently bonded, like glucose, proteins, and lipids.

Inorganic Compounds

• Water's polarity is key, facilitating reactant collisions.
• Salts dissociate into ions in water and act as electrolytes

Acids and Bases

• Acids, bases, and salts separate into ions surrounded by water. PH ranges from acidic (0) to basic (14).

Organic Compounds- Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, including sugars and starches, and are classified by size
• Monosaccharides are simple sugars, disaccharides are two sugars joined by dehydration synthesis, and polysaccharides are long chains of linked simple sugars.

Lipids

• Lipids contain carbon, more hydrogen than oxygen, and are insoluble in water.
• Triglycerides (fats) offer protection, insulation, and energy. Phospholipids form membranes and have polar and nonpolar regions. Steroids are also lipids.

Proteins

• Proteins comprise amino acids, containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulfur, and have roles in cell function, enzymes, hormones and antibodies.

Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic Acids include adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T in DNA), and uracil (U in RNA).
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) is a single nucleotide providing chemical energy to all cells.