Anatomy and Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What type of tissue primarily composes the epidermis?

  • Nervous tissue
  • Connective tissue
  • Epithelial tissue (correct)
  • Muscle tissue

    • Which layer of skin is responsible for producing melanin?

  • Stratum granulosum
  • Stratum lucidum
  • Stratum corneum
  • Stratum basale (correct)

    • Which type of gland is primarily responsible for sweating and responding to temperature?

  • Eccrine gland (correct)
  • Ceruminous gland
  • Mammillary gland
  • Sebaceous gland

    • Which statement accurately describes the function of the ribosomes?

    <p>Ribosomes can exist freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of keratinocytes in the epidermis?

    <p>To produce keratin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do lysosomes play in a cell?

    <p>They contain enzymes that break down cellular waste and debris.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for anchoring the hair follicle to the skin?

    <p>Bulb</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Golgi apparatus?

    <p>To modify, package, and store proteins for export.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of connective tissue makes up the reticular layer of the dermis?

    <p>Dense irregular connective tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly explains the structure of the cell membrane?

    <p>It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded molecules for stability and function.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly describes the hypodermis?

    <p>Connects the skin to underlying structures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor in the dermis specifically detects pain?

    <p>Nociceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes prokaryotes from eukaryotes?

    <p>Eukaryotes contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotes do not.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule is NOT embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane?

    <p>RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of adipose tissue in the hypodermis?

    <p>Stores fat and provides insulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What layer of skin is typically burned in a second-degree burn?

    <p>Epidermis and dermis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cytoskeleton?

    <p>It helps maintain cell shape and facilitates cell movement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the nucleolus within the nucleus?

    <p>To produce ribosomes that are essential for protein synthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which structure does cellular respiration primarily take place?

    <p>Mitochondria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these functions is NOT associated with the function of smooth endoplasmic reticulum (ER)?

    <p>Protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of epithelial tissue?

    <p>Covers surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type is primarily responsible for producing collagen fibers in dense connective tissue?

    <p>Fibroblasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes cardiac muscle tissue?

    <p>It is striated and can have one or two nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a hypertonic solution from a hypotonic solution?

    <p>Hypertonic solutions have more solute concentration than the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which phase of the cell cycle does DNA replication occur?

    <p>S phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of connective tissue serves as a protective cushion around organs and stores energy?

    <p>Loose connective tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do microvilli play in epithelial tissue?

    <p>To increase surface area for absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of muscular tissue is both striated and involuntary?

    <p>Cardiac muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary job of neutrophils, a type of leukocyte?

    <p>Attack and destroy pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of tissue primarily assists in conducting electrical impulses?

    <p>Nervous tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase of mitosis do chromosomes align at the cell's equatorial plane?

    <p>Metaphase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is true regarding smooth muscle?

    <p>It is non-striated and involuntary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of epithelial tissue can change shape between squamous and cuboidal?

    <p>Transitional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes true ribs from false ribs?

    <p>True ribs attach to the sternum by costal cartilage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the axis vertebra?

    <p>It allows for head rotation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vertebrae are referred to as lumbar vertebrae?

    <p>L1 to L5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hyoid bone?

    <p>To protect the air way.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about the clavicle compared to other bones in the pectoral girdle?

    <p>It is longer than it is wide.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the appendicular skeleton provides attachment for the legs?

    <p>Pelvic girdle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which order are the components of the upper extremity named?

    <p>Proximal to distal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the tibia in the lower leg?

    <p>To bear weight.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the shape of the female pelvis compared to the male pelvis?

    <p>It has a larger pubic arch.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the largest bone in the human skeleton?

    <p>Femur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of skin cancer is known for its fast spread and difficulty in treatment?

    <p>Melanoma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are responsible for breaking down bone tissue?

    <p>Osteoclasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of osteocytes in bone tissue?

    <p>Maintain bone tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of bone is primarily responsible for hemopoiesis?

    <p>Spongy bone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of collagen in bone tissue?

    <p>Provide structural integrity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the periosteum from the endosteum?

    <p>Periosteum covers the outside of the bone, while endosteum lines internal cavities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is primarily found in the central canal of osteons?

    <p>Blood vessels and nerves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do chondrocytes contribute to the process of bone growth?

    <p>They undergo mitosis and hypertrophy to increase bone length.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these bones is classified as irregular?

    <p>Vertebra</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of osteogenic cells in bone tissue?

    <p>They generate new bone cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process primarily leads to the formation of long bones during fetal development?

    <p>Endochondral ossification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following bones is part of the axial skeleton?

    <p>Mandible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does hypercalcemia have on bone health?

    <p>It leads to increased osteoblast activity, making bones harder.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the bone's ability to resist bending and twisting?

    <p>Compressive strength</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of joint is characterized as immovable?

    <p>Synarthrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint is an example of a hinge joint?

    <p>Knee joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ligaments?

    <p>Holding bones together at a joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of muscle tissue is classified as involuntary?

    <p>Cardiac muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'external' refer to in the structure of skeletal muscle cells?

    <p>Sarcolemma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint movement involves moving a limb away from the midline of the body?

    <p>Abduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding synovial joints?

    <p>They contain a joint cavity lined with synovial membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What change occurs to intervertebral discs throughout the day?

    <p>They become thicker during weight-bearing activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of myoglobin in skeletal muscle cells?

    <p>Stores oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which classification of joint allows for a significant range of motion?

    <p>Synovial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which joint allows for opposition movement?

    <p>Wrist joint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs as we age that affects synovial joints?

    <p>Production of synovial fluid decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a 'saddle' joint?

    <p>One end is shaped like a saddle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes cardiac muscle cells?

    <p>Branching structure with one or two nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of acetylcholine in muscle physiology?

    <p>It transmits the signal from neuron to muscle cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of the muscle cell structure allows for the rapid spread of action potential?

    <p>T-tubules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of lactic acid on muscle physiology during intense exercise?

    <p>It causes muscle fatigue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of muscle fiber is associated with endurance and prolonged activities?

    <p>Slow twitch fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During muscle contraction, which process occurs first?

    <p>Action potential occurs in the muscle cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of muscle contraction occurs when the muscle length changes?

    <p>Both B and C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells?

    <p>It stores and releases calcium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary energy source for muscle contraction during high-intensity activities?

    <p>Creatine phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure is responsible for connecting muscle to bone?

    <p>Tendon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the relaxation phase of muscle contraction?

    <p>Acetylcholine is broken down</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to calcium ions after a muscle has contracted?

    <p>They are pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which feature distinguishes cardiac muscle from skeletal muscle?

    <p>Presence of intercalated disks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes smooth muscle tissue?

    <p>Self-stimulating activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of pain is characterized by being sudden and short-term, allowing the person to identify exactly where it hurts?

    <p>Acute pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptors are responsible for detecting temperature?

    <p>Thermoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are the mechanoreceptors responsible for proprioception primarily located?

    <p>In the muscles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of dendrites in a neuron?

    <p>Collect data from the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cranial nerve is involved in the sense of smell?

    <p>CN I</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cell type is responsible for supporting neurons?

    <p>Neuroglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What classification do the senses of taste and smell fall under?

    <p>Visceral senses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure connects the middle ear to the throat and helps equalize pressure?

    <p>Eustachian tube</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of neuron is primarily responsible for transmitting information from the brain to a body part?

    <p>Motor neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fluid is found in the cochlea's scala media?

    <p>Endolymph</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What initiates the creation of an action potential in a neuron?

    <p>Signals reaching the axon hillock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do the sensory messages from balance receptors in the inner ear eventually get sent?

    <p>Cerebellum and brainstem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the sodium-potassium pump in a neuron?

    <p>To establish resting membrane potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the eye is responsible for focusing light onto the retina?

    <p>Lens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in muscle contraction?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is primarily responsible for producing speech?

    <p>Broca area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory is primarily involved in skills like riding a bike?

    <p>Procedural memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the rods in the retina?

    <p>Night vision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reflex involves a quick, involuntary reaction and is processed through the spinal cord?

    <p>Spinal reflex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pathway for general senses involves which of the following sequences?

    <p>Receptor → 1st sensory neuron → Thalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What nerve transmits sound signals from the cochlea to the brain?

    <p>CN VIII</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the brain is primarily responsible for coordination of movement?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cranial nerve is solely responsible for hearing?

    <p>Vestibulocochlear nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stimulus is NOT detected by free nerve endings?

    <p>Light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is associated with excitatory cholinergic receptors in muscle contraction?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following structures plays a role in detecting changes in homeostasis?

    <p>Chemoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Preparation for fight or flight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the meninges is the outermost and toughest?

    <p>Dura mater</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of hair cells in the cochlea?

    <p>Transduce sound vibrations into neural signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the autonomic nervous system is primarily involved in maintaining homeostasis?

    <p>Parasympathetic division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the thalamus in the brain?

    <p>Process sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with pleasure and motivation?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are long-term memories primarily consolidated?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of sensory receptor detects changes in chemical concentrations?

    <p>Chemoreceptor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure in the spinal cord is responsible for carrying motor messages away from the CNS?

    <p>Anterior horns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurons are involved in the autonomic nervous system response?

    <p>Upper and lower motor neurons plus post-ganglionic LMNs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does hyperpolarization have on a neuron?

    <p>Decreases the likelihood of action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the neuron is specialized for the transmission of action potentials?

    <p>Axon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does glutamate play in short-term memory?

    <p>It enhances excitatory signaling for memory retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain connects the Wernicke and Broca areas?

    <p>Arcuate fasciculus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines sensory adaptation?

    <p>Decreased sensitivity after constant stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of neural pathway does the 1st sensory neuron follow in the general senses pathway?

    <p>Receptor to Spinal nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory retains information for a lifespan?

    <p>Long-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cell Theory and Structure

    • Basic unit of life: Cells are the fundamental building blocks of all living organisms.
    • Cells originate from pre-existing cells: All cells arise from the division of other cells.
    • Cellular differentiation: Cells specialize to perform specific functions through selective gene activation.
      • Prokaryotes: Simple, small cells found in bacteria.
      • Eukaryotes: Complex, larger cells found in organisms like humans.

    Eukaryotic Cell Structure

    • Plasma membrane: Encloses the cell, regulates passage of substances.
    • Cytoplasm: The entire region inside the cell membrane, including cytosol and organelles.
    • Cytosol/Intracellular fluid: Primarily water, responsible for internal transport within the cell.
    • Organelles: Specialized structures within the cytoplasm performing specific functions.

    Animal Cell Organelles

    • Nucleus: The largest organelle; contains DNA, site of ribosome production.
      • Nuclear envelope: The "skin" of the nucleus, containing pores for selective transport.
      • Nucleolus: Structure within the nucleus that produces ribosomes.
      • Chromatin: Loose DNA strands, present during interphase (when cell is not dividing).
      • Chromosomes: Condensed DNA strands visible during cell division.
    • Ribosomes: Involved in protein synthesis, found free in the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
      • Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use within the cell.
      • Ribosomes attached to rough ER synthesize proteins for export.
    • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Network of flattened tubes.
      • Smooth ER: No ribosomes; involved in detoxification, lipid metabolism, and storage.
      • Rough ER: Ribosomes attached; involved in protein synthesis for export.
    • Golgi complex/apparatus: Stack of flattened tubes.
      • Cis face: Receives proteins from the rough ER.
      • Modifies proteins and packages them into vesicles.
      • Trans face: Where vesicles leave the Golgi complex to be transported.
    • Lysosomes: Contain hydrolytic enzymes to break down substances.
    • Peroxisomes: Break down hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) using oxidative enzymes.
    • Mitochondria: Bean-shaped organelles, site of cellular respiration (ATP production).
      • Aerobic respiration: Requires oxygen to produce ATP.
    • Cytoskeleton: Framework of proteins providing cell structure, movement, and support.
      • Microtubules: Small tubes that form the cytoskeleton.
        • Centrioles: Pairs of microtubule structures near the nucleus, involved in chromosome movement during cell division.
        • Cilia: Short hair-like projections for movement or sweeping of substances across a cell surface.
        • Flagella: Long tail-like extensions for cell movement (e.g., sperm cells).
      • Intermediate filaments: Medium-sized fibers providing structural support.
      • Microfilaments: Small, solid fibers involved in cell contraction and movement.
        • Microvilli: Small bumps on a cell surface that increase surface area for absorption (e.g., intestines).
    • Cell membrane:
      • Phospholipid bilayer: Two layers of phospholipids forming the membrane's basic structure.
      • Embedded molecules: Cholesterol (stability) and proteins (chemical reactions) and glycoproteins (cell recognition).
      • Selectively permeable: Controls what enters and exits the cell.

    Cell Transport

    • Passive transport: Movement of substances across the membrane without energy.
      • Filtration: Movement driven by hydrostatic pressure.
      • Simple diffusion: Movement down a concentration gradient.
      • Osmosis: Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
        • Tonicity: Relation of solute concentrations across a membrane (hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic).
      • Facilitated diffusion: Movement down a concentration gradient using a carrier protein.
    • Active transport: Movement of substances against a concentration gradient using energy.
      • Exocytosis: Vesicles fuse with the membrane to release substances outside the cell.
      • Endocytosis: The cell absorbs substances by engulfing them into vesicles.
        • Phagocytosis ("cell eating").
        • Pinocytosis ("cell drinking").
        • Receptor-mediated endocytosis.

    Cell Cycle

    • Interphase: Period of cell growth and DNA replication.
      • G0: Non-dividing state.
      • G1: Growth and protein synthesis.
      • S: DNA synthesis.
      • G2: Preparation for cell division.
    • Cell division: Mitosis (somatic cells) and meiosis (sex cells).

    Tissue Level (Histology)

    • Animal tissues (epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous).

    Epithelial Tissue

    • Locations: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.
    • Characteristics: Avascular, apical surface, basement membrane.
    • Cell shape: Squamous, cuboidal, columnar.
    • Cell layers: Simple or stratified (single or multiple layers).

    Connective Tissue

    • Extracellular matrix: Supports cells, composed of protein fibers and ground substance.
    • Types:
      • Loose connective tissue: Fibers and cells are spread apart.
        • Areolar: Under skin.
        • Adipose: Stores fat.
        • Reticular: Traps foreign bodies/ germs.
      • Dense connective tissue: Fibers and cells are closely packed.
        • Regular: Parallel fibers in ligaments and tendons.
        • Irregular: Random fibers in organ capsules.
        • Elastic: Elastic fibers in lungs.
      • Specialized connective tissue.
        • Bone tissue: Osteocytes (bone cells), minerals and collagen.
        • Cartilage: Chondrocytes, hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage.
        • Blood: Erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood cells), platelets.
        • Lymph: Fluid in the immune system containing leukocytes.

    Muscle Tissue

    • Types:
      • Skeletal: Attached to bones, striated, voluntary.
      • Cardiac: Found in heart, striated, involuntary.
      • Smooth: Found in viscera, non-striated, involuntary.

    Nervous Tissue

    • Neurons: Specialized cells transmitting information.
    • Neuroglia/Glial cells: Support neurons (many types).

    Tissue Membranes

    • Layers of tissues forming protective barriers.
      • Mucous: Lines cavities to the outside.
      • Serous: Lines cavities not to the outside.
      • Synovial: Lines joint cavities.
      • Cutaneous: Covers external surface of body (skin).

    Tissue Growth and Repair

    • Stem cells: Undifferentiated cells able to divide.
    • Specialization: Stem cells dividing, one cell remaining a stem cell the other differentiates.
    • Repair: Healing of damaged tissue through inflammation, regeneration, or replacement.

    Integumentary System (Skin)

    • Epidermis: Outer layer (epithelial tissue).
    • Dermis: Inner layer (connective, muscle, and nervous tissues).
    • Hypodermis/Subcutaneous: Connects skin to body (CT).

    Epidermis

    • Stratified squamous epithelium.
    • Keratinocytes: Produce keratin.
    • Melanocytes: Produce melanin.
    • Nails: Made of keratin.
    • Chemical Reactions: Vitamin D synthesis from UV light.

    Dermis

    • Papillary and reticular layers: Contain blood vessels, glands, sensory receptors.
      • Hair follicle, hair shaft, arrector pili muscle, sebaceous gland, sudoriferous gland, ceruminous gland, mammary gland, blood vessels, and nervous tissue.

    Hypodermis

    • Adipose tissue: Stores fat, insulates, and cushions.

    Disorders

    • Burns: Classified by degree (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th).
    • Lesions: Abnormal skin areas (blisters, pustules, etc.).
    • Skin cancer: Various types, melanoma (fastest spreading).

    Skeletal System

    • Bone tissue:
      • Cells: Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts.
      • Matrix: Minerals (calcium), collagen.
      • Compact bone: Dense, outer layer, Haversian systems.
      • Spongy bone: Inner layer, trabeculae, red marrow.
      • Bone markings: Openings, depressions, projections.
    • Bone shape: Flat, long, short, round/sesamoid, irregular.
    • Long bone anatomy: Epiphysis, diaphysis, medullary cavity, periosteum, endosteum, articular cartilage, nutrient foramen.

    Osteogenesis

    • Endochondral ossification: Cartilage replaced by bone.
      • Primary ossification center: Bone formation begins in the diaphysis.
      • Secondary ossification centers: Bone formation at the epiphyses.
      • Growth plates: Cartilage separating epiphysis and diaphysis.
    • Intramembranous ossification: Bone formation directly from fibrous membrane.
    • Fracture repair: Hematoma formation, callus formation, bone remodeling.

    Calcium Homeostasis

    • Hypercalcemia: Calcitonin stimulates bone formation, excretes calcium.
    • Hypocalcemia: Parathyroid hormone stimulates bone resorption, increases calcium absorption.

    Skeletal System Functions

    • Support, shape, storage of minerals/lipids, hematopoiesis, protection, movement, growth.

    Skeleton

    • Axial skeleton: Skull, thoracic cage, vertebral column.
      • Skull bones: Cranial and facial (various bones and structures, including sinuses).
      • Thoracic cage: Sternum, ribs.
      • Vertebral column: Vertebrae (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, coccyx).
    • Appendicular skeleton: Pectoral girdle, upper extremity, pelvic girdle, lower extremity.
      • Pectoral girdle: Clavicles, scapulae.
      • Upper extremity: Humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges.
      • Pelvic girdle: Os coxae.
      • Lower extremity: Femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges.

    Joints

    • Articulations: Where bones meet.
    • Classification by movement: Synarthrosis (immovable), amphiarthrosis (slightly movable), diarthrosis (freely movable).
    • Classification by tissues: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.
      • Synovial joints: Structure, types (ball and socket, condyloid, gliding, pivot, hinge, saddle), movements (flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, supination, pronation, inversion, eversion, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion).
    • Joint changes: Sutures, epiphyseal plates, intervertebral discs.

    Muscular System

    • Skeletal muscle: Types of muscle fibers (slow twitch, fast twitch, intermediate).
    • Skeletal muscle functions: Produce movement, maintain posture, control openings, produce heat.
    • Skeletal muscle anatomy: Attachments (origin, insertion), action, functional groups (agonists, antagonists, synergists), innervation.
    • Muscle names (location, direction, size, attachments, action, and shape).

    Nervous System

    • CNS: Brain and spinal cord.
    • PNS: Nerves.

    Nervous Tissue

    • Neurons: Cells transmitting information.
    • Neuroglia: Supporting cells (many types).
    • Neuron structure: Dendrites, soma, axon, axon terminals.
    • Nerve classification: By function (sensory, motor, interneuron) and structure (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar).

    Synapses

    • Synaptic cleft: Space between presynaptic and postsynaptic cells.
    • Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers.

    Action Potential

    • Resting membrane potential: -70 mV.
    • Depolarization: Inside of cell becomes more positive.
    • Action potential: Electrical signal propagated down the axon.
    • Repolarization: Inside of cell returns to negative.
    • Synaptic transmission: Release of neurotransmitters at synapse.

    Neurotransmitters

    • Acetylcholine (ACh): Common excitatory neurotransmitter.
    • Monoamines (e.g., norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin): Various functions.
    • Amino acids (e.g., glutamate, GABA): Excitatory or inhibitory.

    Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

    • Spinal cord: Gray and white matter, meninges, nerve roots, spinal nerves, rami, plexuses, dermatomes.
    • Spinal reflexes: Involuntary reactions (e.g., knee-jerk reflex).

    Brain

    • Brain regions (cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, brain stem).
    • Ventricles: Cavities filled with CSF.
    • Meninges: Membranes covering the brain and spinal cord.
    • Cranial nerves: Names, functions, sensory, motor, or both.

    Integration of Nervous System

    • Somatic nervous system: Conscious control of skeletal muscles.
    • Higher brain functions: Speech, memory (working and long-term), declarative memory, procedural memory.

    Autonomic Nervous System

    • Divisions (sympathetic, parasympathetic): Effects on viscera.

    Senses

    • Sensory receptors: Detect changes, convert stimuli to signals.
    • Classification by stimuli (chemoreceptors, nociceptors, thermoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, photoreceptors).
    • Classification by structure (free nerve endings, corpuscles).
    • Sensory adaptation: Receptors adjust to constant stimulation.
    • General senses; location, pathways.
      • Somatic senses (touch, pressure, temperature, pain, proprioception); visceral senses (internal organs).

    Special Senses

    • Smell (olfaction): Chemoreceptors in upper nasal cavity.
    • Taste (gustation): Chemoreceptors in taste buds.
    • Hearing (auditory): Mechanoreceptors in cochlea.
    • Balance (equilibrium): Mechanoreceptors in vestibular apparatus.
    • Sight (vision): Photoreceptors in retina.

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    Description

    Test your knowledge on the anatomy and physiology of the skin, including its layers, functions, and key components. This quiz covers topics such as types of tissues, cell functions, and various skin receptors. Challenge yourself with questions related to histology and cellular biology.

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