Anatomy and Physiology Quiz

The fundamental theory stating that all living organisms are composed of cells and that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

The process by which cells specialize in structure and function due to the activation of specific genes within their DNA.

Simple, small cells lacking a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, found in bacteria.

Complex, larger cells with a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, found in humans and other multicellular organisms.

The outer boundary of a cell, a phospholipid bilayer that regulates the passage of molecules in and out.

The gel-like substance within the cell membrane, containing the cytosol and organelles.

Specialized structures within a cell, like mini organs, performing specific functions.

The control center of the cell, containing DNA, a blueprint for all cellular activities.

Small, granular structures that manufacture proteins, essential for all cellular functions.

Powerhouses of the cell, responsible for cellular respiration, converting nutrients into energy (ATP).

Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration.

A solution with a higher concentration of solutes than the cell. Water moves out of the cell, causing it to shrink.

A solution with a lower concentration of solutes than the cell. Water moves into the cell, causing it to swell.

A solution with the same concentration of solutes as the cell. Water moves equally in and out of the cell, maintaining a stable size.

Movement of molecules across a membrane with the help of a carrier protein, going down the concentration gradient.

Movement of molecules across a membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.

Process by which cells release substances outside the cell using vesicles that fuse with the cell membrane.

Process by which cells take in substances from outside the cell, forming vesicles that pinch off from the cell membrane.

A type of endocytosis where cells engulf large particles, like bacteria.

A type of endocytosis where cells take in small particles and fluids.

A type of endocytosis where cells take in specific substances by binding to receptors on the cell surface.

Proteins that use energy to move ions across a membrane against their concentration gradient.

The stage of the cell cycle where the cell grows and replicates its DNA.

The process of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells from one parent cell.

The process of cell division that produces four non-identical daughter cells from one parent cell, used for sexual reproduction.

Redness, swelling, warmth, and pain are the classic signs of inflammation, indicating the body's response to injury or infection.

Regeneration completely restores damaged tissue to its original state, while replacement involves scar tissue formation, typically after severe injury.

The integumentary system, comprised of skin and its appendages, acts as a protective barrier against environmental factors, regulates temperature, and plays a role in sensory perception.

The epidermis, the outermost layer of skin, is composed of five layers: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (thick skin only), and stratum corneum.

Keratin is a tough, water-resistant protein produced by keratinocytes, the primary cells of the epidermis. It forms the protective outer layer of the skin and structures like nails and hair.

The dermis, the layer beneath the epidermis, is comprised of the papillary layer, a superficial layer containing areolar connective tissue, and the reticular layer, a deeper layer composed of dense irregular connective tissue.

Apocrine sweat glands are active after puberty and release pheromones, while eccrine sweat glands regulate body temperature and are present from birth.

The arrector pili muscle, located near hair follicles, contracts in response to cold or emotional stimuli, causing hair to stand up and creating goosebumps.

Sensory receptors in the dermis detect various external stimuli, including temperature changes (thermoreceptors), pressure (mechanoreceptors), and tissue damage (nociceptors), sending signals to the brain for processing.

1st degree burns affect the epidermis, causing redness. 2nd degree burns damage the dermis, leading to blisters. 3rd degree burns destroy all skin layers, potentially reaching the hypodermis.

The upper ribs that directly attach to the sternum by costal cartilage.

The lower ribs that do not directly attach to the sternum.

The last two pairs of ribs (R11, L11 and R12, L12) that are not attached to the sternum.

The backbone, made up of 24 individual bones called vertebrae, all with a central hole for the spinal cord.

The first seven bones of the spine, located in the neck.

The 12 vertebrae located in the chest region, starting after the cervical vertebrae.

The five vertebrae in the lower back, starting after the thoracic vertebrae.

A bone formed by the fusion of five vertebrae at the base of the vertebral column.

The tailbone, formed by the fusion of a few vertebrae.

The only bone in the skeleton that does not articulate with another bone. Located in the upper front of the neck, it protects the airway and provides attachment for tongue and swallowing muscles.

Joints, or articulations, are where two or more bones meet. They allow for movement and growth.

Ligaments are strong, dense connective tissues that connect bones to each other. They provide stability and restrict excessive movement.

A Synarthrosis joint is an immovable joint. It provides stability but no movement.

An Amphiarthrosis joint is a slightly movable joint. It allows for limited movement.

A Diarthrosis joint is a freely movable joint. It enables a wide range of motions.

In Fibrous joints, bones are connected by strong collagen fibers. These joints are often immobile.

Cartilaginous joints have a layer of cartilage between the bones. They allow for a limited degree of movement.

Synovial joints have a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid. They are highly mobile and have a wide range of movement.

A ball and socket joint allows for movement in all directions. One bone end is a ball and the other is a socket.

A Condyloid joint allows for movement in two planes, like the movement of your knuckles.

A Gliding joint allows for minor sliding and gliding movements.

A Pivot joint allows for rotation around a central axis, like turning your head.

A Hinge joint allows for movement in one plane, like bending your arm.

A Saddle joint allows for movement in two planes, like the movement of your thumb.

Opposition is a unique movement that allows the thumb to touch other fingers, enabling grasping.

A type of skin cancer that originates from melanocytes (cells that produce melanin) and spreads rapidly, making it difficult to treat. It starts in the epidermis and spreads to the dermis.

A type of skin cancer that originates from cells in the stratum basale (bottommost layer of the epidermis). It spreads slowly from the epidermis to the dermis, making it easier to treat.

A type of skin cancer that originates from any cell in the epidermis except melanocytes and basal cells. It spreads very slowly, making it very easy to treat.

Stem cells found in bone tissue that continuously produce osteoblasts, the baby cells that will develop into mature bone cells.

Baby cells produced by osteogenic cells that secrete the bone matrix. They eventually mature into osteocytes.

Mature bone cells responsible for maintaining the health of bone tissue. They reside in lacunae (small cavities) within the bone matrix.

Cells formed by the fusion of white blood cells. Their job is to break down bone matrix.

Compact bone is the solid part of a bone and is located on the outside layer. It's designed to handle weight and stress. The tightly packed structure allows for the flow of blood through tiny canals called osteons.

Microscopic structures within compact bone that allow for blood flow and nutrient delivery to bone cells. Each osteon is a circular unit with a central canal running through it.

Spongy bone tissue is a lighter, porous type of bone that is found inside bones. It is designed for flexibility and to allow for the production of blood cells.

Red bone marrow is found within the spaces of spongy bone tissue. It's responsible for producing blood cells.

The periosteum is a membrane that covers the outside of a bone. It contains cells that can form new bone and aids in bone repair.

The endosteum is a membrane that lines the cavities inside bones. It contains cells that can help with bone remodeling and repair.

There are two main types of bone formation:

1. Endochondral ossification: This process involves cartilage being replaced by bone and is how most bones in our bodies form.
2. Intramembranous ossification: This process involves bone forming directly from a fibrous membrane and mainly creates flat bones.

A fracture repair is the process of healing a bone break. It starts with a blood clot forming at the fracture site (hematoma). The blood clot brings nutrients and white blood cells to the area, which then leads to the formation of new bone by osteoblasts. Osteoclasts then reshape the bone, bringing it back to its normal shape.

Nerve cells that transmit signals from the body's sensory receptors to the central nervous system (CNS).

Nerve cells that carry signals from the CNS to muscles and glands, causing them to contract or secrete.

Nerve cells that connect other neurons within the CNS, acting as intermediaries in neural pathways.

Branching extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons or sensory receptors.

A long, slender extension of a neuron that transmits signals from the cell body to other neurons or effector cells.

The junction between a neuron and another cell, where a signal is transmitted from one cell to the next.

Chemical messengers released by neurons at synapses, carrying signals across the synaptic cleft.

A brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon, transmitting a signal from one end of the neuron to the other.

The electrical difference across the membrane of a neuron when it is not actively sending a signal.

A change in membrane potential that makes the inside of the cell more positive, bringing it closer to the threshold for generating an action potential.

The process of restoring the membrane potential of a neuron to its resting state after an action potential.

A fatty substance that insulates axons, allowing for faster and more efficient transmission of action potentials.

A long, cylindrical structure that transmits signals between the brain and the rest of the body.

A neural pathway that produces a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus.

The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-level functions like thinking, planning, and decision-making.

Motor neurons transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord to muscle cells, causing them to contract.

A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. These muscle fibers will either all contract or all relax together.

Dendrites are extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons.

The axon is a long, slender extension of a neuron that transmits signals away from the cell body.

The neuromuscular junction is the specialized synapse where a motor neuron communicates with a muscle fiber.

Acetylcholine (Ach) is a neurotransmitter that plays a key role in muscle contraction. It is released from the motor neuron at the neuromuscular junction.

Depolarization is the change in electrical charge across the muscle cell membrane where the inside becomes more positive and the outside becomes more negative. This triggers muscle contraction.

T-tubules are extensions of the muscle cell membrane that carry the action potential (electrical signal) deep into the muscle fiber.

Calcium ions (Ca+) are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and bind to troponin, causing a shift that exposes the binding sites on actin for myosin to attach.

The sliding filament theory explains muscle contraction as the sliding of the thin filaments (actin) over the thick filaments (myosin) within the sarcomere.

ATP provides the energy needed for myosin to detach from actin, allowing the cycle of muscle contraction to continue.

Creatine phosphate is a high-energy molecule stored in muscle cells. It can quickly donate a phosphate group to ADP to regenerate ATP for short bursts of energy.

Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP (2) without oxygen.

Aerobic respiration is a metabolic process that occurs in the mitochondria and uses oxygen to break down pyruvate, producing a large amount of ATP (30+).

Anaerobic respiration occurs when oxygen is limited. Pyruvate is converted into lactic acid, producing no ATP but regenerating materials for glycolysis.

A neuron that originates in the brain and travels through the medulla oblongata to the spinal cord, controlling voluntary movement.

A neuron that originates in the spinal cord and directly innervates skeletal muscle fibers, transmitting signals for muscle contraction.

A neurotransmitter that acts on excitatory cholinergic receptors in skeletal muscle to initiate muscle contraction.

The specialization of each hemisphere of the brain for certain functions, with the left side typically responsible for language and the right side for spatial processing.

A sensory area in the parietal lobe responsible for processing incoming language information, enabling speech comprehension.

A motor area in the frontal lobe responsible for planning and coordinating muscle movements involved in speech production.

A bundle of nerve fibers that connects the Wernicke and Broca areas, facilitating communication between language processing and speech production.

A temporary storage system for information actively being used during a task, typically lasting only a few seconds to minutes.

The ability to retain information for a short period, typically minutes to days, enabling retention of recent events.

The ability to store information for extended periods, often years to a lifetime, allowing recall of past experiences.

Specialized nerve endings that detect temperature changes, found in the skin and internal organs.

Free nerve endings in the skin and internal organs that detect tissue damage, causing the sensation of pain.

Acute pain is sudden, sharp, and localized, often lasting a short time. Chronic pain persists for a longer period, often with a dull, aching quality.

Pain that is felt in a location different from the source of the pain, often due to shared nerve pathways in the body.

The sense of body position and movement, detected by mechanoreceptors in muscles and tendons.

Specialized mechanoreceptors in muscles and tendons, respectively, that help sense muscle stretch and tension.

Visceral senses detect internal organ activity, including conscious pain and pressure (free nerve endings, mechanoreceptors), and unconscious changes in homeostasis (mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors).

The sense of smell, detected by chemoreceptors in the olfactory organs of the nasal cavity.

The five primary taste sensations are salty, sweet, umami (savory), sour, and bitter.

Sound waves enter the outer ear, travel through the external auditory canal, vibrate the tympanic membrane, and then pass through the middle ear via the auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes) to the oval window, which transmits vibrations to the inner ear's cochlea.

A spiral-shaped structure in the inner ear filled with fluid that converts sound vibrations into electrical signals that are sent to the brain.

The vestibular apparatus in the inner ear is responsible for detecting balance and equilibrium, using mechanoreceptors sensitive to head movement.

Photoreceptors, specifically rods and cones, are specialized cells in the retina of the eye that detect light and convert it into electrical signals.

Light enters the eye through the cornea, passes through the pupil (controlled by the iris), and is focused by the lens onto the retina, where photoreceptors convert light into electrical signals.

The two types are upper motor neurons (UMN) and lower motor neurons (LMN). UMNs originate in the brain and descend to the medulla oblongata, where they synapse with LMNs. LMNs then carry the signal from the medulla oblongata to the spinal cord and finally to the muscle fiber.

Acetylcholine (Ach) is a neurotransmitter released by the lower motor neuron at the neuromuscular junction. It binds to receptors on the muscle fiber, triggering depolarization and initiating muscle contraction.

Contralateral control means that the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

The Wernicke area is located in the parietal lobe and is responsible for processing incoming language information. It allows us to comprehend speech.

The Broca area is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for controlling the muscles involved in speech production.

The arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the Wernicke and Broca areas. It allows for the smooth flow of information between the two areas, enabling us to understand and produce speech.

Working memory is temporary and task-oriented, used for immediate tasks like following directions. Short-term memory lasts minutes to days, storing information like where you parked your car. Long-term memory persists for years or a lifetime, holding memories like your first day of high school.

Glutamate, an excitatory neurotransmitter, plays a role in strengthening synaptic connections during short-term memory formation. This increased activity helps maintain the memory trace.

Memory consolidation is the process of converting fragile short-term memories into more stable long-term memories. It involves strengthening synaptic connections and reorganizing neural networks.

Declarative/explicit memory includes two subtypes: semantic memory (facts and general knowledge) and episodic memory (personal experiences).

The hippocampus is crucial for the formation and retrieval of new memories, especially facts. The amygdala processes emotions and helps link those emotions to memories, making emotionally charged events more memorable.

Procedural memory stores skills and habits you've learned, like riding a bike. These memories are often unconscious and automatic.

The cerebellum, responsible for coordination, and the premotor cortex, involved in planning movements, both contribute to the formation and execution of learned motor skills stored as procedural memory.

The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, digestion, and breathing. It works automatically to maintain homeostasis.

The ANS pathway involves a chain of three neurons: the upper motor neuron (starts in the hypothalamus or medulla), the pre-ganglionic neuron (connects to a ganglion), and the post-ganglionic neuron (extends to the target organ).