Anatomy and Physiology Practice Questions

• When the body is in anatomical position it is erect with feet slightly apart, toes pointed forward, arms at sides hanging, and palms facing forward.
• Superior means towards the head, while inferior means away from the head.
• Dorsal refers to the back, and ventral refers to the front.
• Anterior means towards the front, and posterior means towards the back.
• Cephalad means towards the head, and caudal means towards the tail.
• Proximal means closer to the point of attachment, and distal means farther from the point of attachment.
• The thumb is lateral to the pinky.
• The nose is medial to the cheeks.
• The knee is distal to the hips.
• The forehead is superior to the mouth.
• The heart is anterior to the back.
• The feet are distal to the knees.
• The sagittal or medial plane divides the body into left and right sections.
• The frontal or coronal plane divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.
• The transverse plane divides the body into superior and inferior sections.
• The dorsal body cavity is subdivided into the cranial and vertebral cavity.
• The cranial cavity houses the brain, and vertebral contains the spinal cord.
• The ventral body cavity is subdivided into the thoracic and abdominal cavity.
• The thoracic cavity contains the heart and lungs.
• The abdominal cavity contains most of the digestive organs.
• The four abdominal quadrants are the right upper, left upper, right lower, and left lower quadrants.
• The nine abdominal regions are the right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lateral, umbilical, left lateral, right inguinal, pubic, and left inguinal.

Histology

• Histology is the study of tissues.
• A tissue is a group of similar cells that perform a common function.

Epithelial Tissue

• Epithelial tissue covers surfaces, both internal and external.
• It lines cavities and tubules.
• Cell shapes include squamous, cuboidal, and columnar.
• Epithelial tissue can be simple (one layer) or stratified (multiple layers).
• Epithelial tissue exhibits polarity, having one free surface and one surface in contact with the basement membrane.
• Cells have specialized junctions that keep them fitted together closely.
• Epithelial tissue is supported by connective tissue that underlies the basement membrane.
• It is avascular but innervated, meaning it has nerves but not blood vessels.
• Epithelia can regenerate if well-nourished.
• The apical surface faces the environment.
• The basal surface faces the basement membrane.
• The basement membrane is a specialized extracellular matrix that supports the epithelium.

Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue supports other tissue types.
• It has a nonliving portion called the extracellular matrix, made of fibers and ground substance.
• Ground substance consists of interstitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans.
• Fiber content varies based on the type of connective tissue.
• Collagen fibers are the most abundant fiber type.
• Other fibers include elastic fibers and reticular fibers.
• The living portion consists of cells that produce the contents of the nonliving portion.
• Cells originate from the mesenchyme, a tissue of the early embryo.
• Different connective tissue types have different cell types to support their structure and function.
• Fibroblasts produce connective tissue proper.
• Chondroblasts produce cartilage.
• Osteoblasts produce bone tissue.
• Hematopoietic stem cells produce blood cells.

Other Tissue Types

• Muscle tissue is responsible for movement.
• Nervous tissue controls the body.
• The skin is also known as the integument or cutaneous membrane.
• The integument is a tough outer protective layer.
• It is composed of the dermis and epidermis.

Epidermis

• The epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin, consisting of several layers or strata.
• The stratum basale is the deepest stratum, containing melanocytes and tactile epithelial cells.
• The stratum spinosum is the second deepest layer, with keratinocytes joined by desmosomes and containing thick bundles of intermediate filaments.
• The stratum granulosum is the third deepest layer, containing lamellar granules and keratohyalin granules.
• The most superficial cells of this layer are starting to die.
• The stratum lucidum is the fourth deepest layer, present only in thick skin, and contains flattened dead keratinocytes.
• The stratum corneum is the top layer, containing many layers of dead keratinocytes.

Dermis

• The dermis is the deeper layer of the skin.
• The superficial papillary layer is composed of areolar connective tissue.
• In thick skin, the surface of the papillary layer forms dermal ridges that create epidermal ridges (increase friction and improve gripping).
• The pattern of epidermal ridges is genetically unique to an individual, forming the basis for fingerprinting.
• This layer contains tactile corpuscles (touch receptors) and free nerve endings (pain receptors).
• The deep reticular layer accounts for 80% of the dermis and is composed of dense irregular connective tissue.
• It contains lamellar corpuscles (deep pressure receptors).
• Cleavage lines are areas of the reticular layer with fewer collagen bundles.
• Incisions parallel to cleavage lines gape less and heal faster.
• Striae (stretch marks) indicate dermal tearing, replaced by silvery white scars.

Nervous Structures in Skin

• Tactile epithelial cells are in the stratum basale/epidermal-dermal junction.
• Tactile corpuscles are in the papillary layer of the dermis.
• Lamellar corpuscles are in the reticular layer of the dermis, responding to deep pressure.
• Root hair plexuses are wrapped around the base of hair follicles, stimulated when hair bends.

Sweat Glands

• Sweat glands are also called sudoriferous glands and are widely distributed with outlets through pores.
• Eccrine glands are all over the body and produce clear perspiration consisting of water, salts, and urea.
• Apocrine glands are predominantly in axillary and genital areas, secreting a milky substance rich in protein and fat.
• Ceruminous glands produce cerumen (ear wax).
• Mammary glands produce milk.

Sebaceous Glands

• Sebaceous glands are all over the body except for the palms of hands and soles of feet.
• They produce sebum, a mixture of oil and fragmented cells that keeps skin soft and moist.
• Ducts usually empty into a hair follicle and become more active during puberty.

Hair

• Hair is all over the body except for the palms of the hands, soles of the feet, part of external genitalia, nipples, and lips.
• It is made mostly of nonliving material.
• The hair shaft projects from the skin, while the hair root is enclosed within the hair follicle.
• The hair bulb consists of epithelial cells at the base of the follicle.
• Three layers of keratinized cells make up the hair: the medulla, cortex, and cuticle.
• Hair color depends on the amount of melanin.

Nails

• Nails are horn-like derivatives of the epidermis.
• They are transparent and nearly colorless, made of mostly non-living material.
• The nail matrix contains germinal cells responsible for nail growth.

Functions of Skeleton

• The skeleton provides an internal framework for the body.
• It facilitates Movement.
• The skeleton is involved in Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation).
• It stores lipids and minerals.

Types of Bone

• Bones are classified by texture as spongy (trabeculae) or compact (dense).
• Bones are classified by gross anatomy as long, flat, short, or irregular.
• Long bones are longer than they are wide.
• Flat bones are thin.
• Short bones are cube-shaped.

Divisions of the Skeleton

• The axial skeleton includes the skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid bone, vertebral column, and bony thorax.
• The skull consists of cranial and facial bones.
• The auditory ossicles are middle ear bones.
• The hyoid bone is a point of attachment for the tongue and neck muscles.
• The vertebral column includes cervical, thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae, intervertebral discs, the sacrum, and the coccyx.
• The bony thorax includes 12 pairs of ribs, the sternum, and costal cartilage.
• The appendicular skeleton includes the pectoral girdle, upper extremities, pelvic girdle, and lower extremities.
• The pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle and scapula.
• The upper extremities include the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
• The pelvic girdle consists of the coxal bone.
• The lower extremities include the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.

Bone Markings

• Projections on bones serve as sites of muscle and ligament attachment.
• Types of projections include tuberosity, crest, trochanter, line, tubercle, epicondyle, spine, and process.
• Some bone markings help form joints, such as the head, facet, condyle, and ramus.
• Depressions and openings in bones allow passage of vessels and nerves, including fissures, foramina, and notches.
• Other bone markings include the meatus, sinus, and fossa.

Cartilage

• Cartilage is aneural (no nerves) and avascular (no blood vessels).
• Is Resilient and mostly composed of collagenous ECM and water.
• It is covered by perichondrium (dense irregular connective tissue).
• Chondrocytes secrete the cartilage matrix.
• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant type.
• Elastic cartilage is very flexible and found only in the epiglottis and auricle of the ear.
• Fibrocartilage has high tensile strength and provides shock absorption.

Test your knowledge of anatomy and physiology with these multiple-choice questions. Topics include abdominal regions, anatomical position, body planes, tissue types, and epidermal layers. Improve your understanding of key anatomical concepts.