Anatomy and Physiology Basics

Disease Etiology

• Etiology refers to the cause of a disease.

Signs and Symptoms

• Fever is a sign, not a symptom. A sign is an objective observation, while a symptom is a subjective experience.

Anatomical Planes

• The midsagittal plane divides the body into left and right halves.

Atomic Structure

• The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons.

Heat Capacity and Body Temperature

• Water has a higher specific heat capacity than air. This means it takes more energy to change the temperature of water compared to air. This leads to faster heat loss in water than in air, affecting body temperature regulation.

Cell Membrane Properties

• Cell membranes are selectively permeable, meaning they allow certain substances to pass through while restricting others.

Cellular Respiration and Glucose

• Glucose is the primary molecule broken down during cellular respiration to produce ATP (energy).

Serous Membranes

• Serous membranes line body cavities and cover the organs within those cavities. These membranes secrete a lubricating fluid that reduces friction between the organs and the cavity walls.

Muscle Tissue Types

• Cardiac muscle tissue has interlocking cells, which allows for coordinated and efficient muscle contractions, vital for the heart's pumping action.

Long Bone Anatomy

• The epiphysis is the end of a long bone.

Muscle Types

• Skeletal muscle is voluntary muscle.

Thermoregulation in Cold Environments

• In a cold environment, peripheral blood vessels vasoconstrict to reduce blood flow to the extremities, which helps conserve heat and maintain a stable core body temperature.

Nervous System Input

• The sensory division is the input side of the nervous system.

Spinal Nerves

• Spinal nerves carry mixed information; they contain both sensory and motor fibers.

Sensory Receptor Density

• The fingers have the highest density of touch receptors, making them highly sensitive to tactile stimuli.

Endocrine Hormones (Opposing Actions)

• Glucagon works in opposition to insulin in regulating blood sugar levels.

Heart Valves

• The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle.

Heart Valves and Cardiac Cycle

• Atrioventricular (AV) valves close during ventricular systole (contraction).

Cardiac Output and Blood Pressure

• An increase in cardiac output will lead to an increase in blood pressure.

ECG Waves and Ventricular Activity

• The QRS wave in an ECG represents ventricular depolarization.

Respiration

• External respiration is the gas exchange between the alveoli and the capillaries.

Cardiac Conduction System

• After leaving the AV node, the electrical impulse travels along the AV bundle.

Upper Airway Function

• Gas exchange is not a function of the upper airway; the lower respiratory structures (lungs) are responsible for gas exchange.

Trachea Control

• The epiglottis controls the opening to the trachea.

Cellular Respiration and Oxygen

• Cells require oxygen to produce ATP (energy) through cellular respiration.

Innate Immune Cells

• Neutrophils are innate immune cells.

Epiglottis Function

• The epiglottis prevents food and liquid from entering the trachea and lungs during swallowing.

Liver Blood Supply

• The liver receives blood from both the hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic artery supplies oxygenated blood, and the hepatic portal vein delivers nutrient-rich blood from the digestive system.

Kidney Structure

• Collecting ducts are found in the renal pelvis, the funnel-shaped structure that collects urine from the nephrons before it leaves the kidney.

Renal Hormone and Blood Pressure

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), secreted by the hypothalamus, promotes water reabsorption when blood pressure decreases.

Ovulation Hormone

• Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates ovulation.

Pregnancy Hormones

• Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is elevated during pregnancy.

Innate Immunity and Antigens

• Innate immunity is not specifically stimulated by foreign antigens, unlike adaptive immunity. Innate immunity acts as a general defense mechanism, while adaptive immunity responds to specific invaders.

Fever and Inflammation (Immune Response)

• Fever and inflammation are both parts of the innate immune response, acting as general defense mechanisms against pathogens.

Ventricular Contraction and ECG

• Ventricular contraction occurs during the QRS complex of the ECG.

Summary of Question Types

• This set of questions includes numerous multiple-choice and written response questions focused on various aspects of biology. It emphasizes anatomical terms, functions, and physiological mechanisms.

This lesson covers key concepts in anatomy and physiology. Topics include disease etiology, signs vs. symptoms, anatomical planes, and basic atomic structure. It also touches on heat capacity, cell membrane properties, cellular respiration, and serous membranes.