Amino Acid Structure Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following applies to the structure of the isoleucine side chain?

  • Contains an aromatic ring
  • Contains a branched hydrocarbon chain (correct)
  • Contains the sulfhydryl group
  • Contains a positively charged side chain

    • Which of the following amino acids has the basic properties?

  • Histidine (correct)
  • Leucine
  • Tryptophan
  • Threonine

    • Stereoisomers exist for all amino acids, except: Glycine

    True

    The primary structure of the protein is the ______ in a protein.

    <p>linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bond is formed between the non-protein and protein part in the phosphoprotein molecule?

    <p>Phosphoester</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the amino acid with its prevalence in the structure of collagen:

    <p>Alanine = No Serine = No Lysine = No Glycine = Yes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the isoelectric point?

    <p>the pH at which the net charge of the protein is neutral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the reaction of pentose phosphate pathway that is accompanied by dehydrogenation and decarboxylation:

    <p>6-phosphogluconate → ribulose-5-phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the reactions of glycolysis that are accompanied by isomerization:

    <p>glucose-6-phosphate → fructose-6-phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct sequence of the enzymes of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex:

    <p>dihydrolipoyl transacetylase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct sequence of the coenzymes of multienzyme complex performing oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate:

    <p>NAD+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct sequence of citrate cycle stages:

    <p>substrate-level phosphorylation at a level of succinyl-CoA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct sequence of dehydrogenase reactions in Krebs cycle:

    <p>isocitrate dehydrogenation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the possible causes of hyperenzymemia:

    <p>Increased number of cells producing the enzyme (tumor)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hypoenzymemia may be due to:

    <p>Congenital enzyme deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct answers about parietal digestion of carbohydrates:

    <p>Lactose is broken down to glucose and galactose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During anaerobic glycolysis ATP is synthesized by the mechanism of substrate-level phosphorylation.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Synthesis of glucose from other organic non-carbohydrate compounds is called ________.

    <p>Gluconeogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the biological role of the non-oxidative phase of the pentose phosphate pathway?

    <p>Provides ribose-5-phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the factors necessary for the elongation of translation:

    <p>GTP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the factors necessary for the termination of translation:

    <p>codons UAA, UGA or UAG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose processes that require GTP energy during translation:

    <p>attaching aminoacyl-tRNA to the aminoacyl center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    MRNA is involved in the processes of:

    <p>transcription</p> Signup and view all the answers

    TRNA is involved in the processes of:

    <p>translation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose main metabolic effect of insulin:

    <p>lowers the blood glucose level</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone binds to nuclear receptors?

    <p>Thyroxine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identify the correct sequence of events in the cascade mechanism of hormonal signal transduction:

    <p>the formation of second messenger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Waxes are composed of:

    <p>Esters of an alcohol and fatty acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Simple lipids include:

    <p>Triacylglycerols</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Palmitic acid is a:

    <p>Saturated fatty acid containing 16 carbon atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cholesterol belongs to which classification of lipids?

    <p>Unsaponifiable lipids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are common structural components for mono-, di- and triacylglycerols?

    <p>Residues of trihydric alcohol glycerol and fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are amphipathic lipids?

    <p>Phospholipids and free cholesterol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What region of phospholipid molecules is hydrophobic?

    <p>Fatty acid residues attached to the alcohol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are triacylglycerols completely insoluble in water?

    <p>They do not include groups capable of dissociation or having polarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The diagnosis confirmation was provided by the finding of high blood level of:

    <p>Cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All these effects are characteristic of insulin, except:

    <p>It interacts with nuclear receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All statements regarding insulin are true, except:

    <p>Increases lipolysis in adipose tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Insulin is necessary for transport of glucose to the following pair of tissues:

    <p>Adipose tissue and skeletal muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Binding of insulin to its receptor results in stimulation of enzyme activity, except for:

    <p>Glycogen phosphorylase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Diabetes is characterized by all of the following metabolic changes, except:

    <p>Stimulation of lipogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glucocorticoids have a catabolic effect on:

    <p>Skeletal muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All the following compounds are produced in the liver, except:

    <p>Chylomicrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One of the main functions of the liver is to maintain blood glucose level. Even with the complete exclusion of carbohydrates from the diet, glucose blood level is maintained mainly due to:

    <p>Gluconeogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Unconjugated bilirubin in blood is transferred bound to albumin because:

    <p>It is poorly soluble in water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Feces normally contain:

    <p>Stercobilin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Obstructive jaundice is accompanied by increasing blood level of:

    <p>Direct bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hemolytic jaundice is accompanied by:

    <p>Stercobilin increase in urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Decreased antitoxic function of the liver is accompanied by the following changes in the blood:

    <p>Increasing indirect bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    This reaction is used in the processes of: a) oxidative deamination b) indirect deamination of amino acids c) citric acid cycle d) ornithine cycle

    <p>a, c</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the enzymes involved in the oxidative deamination of amino acids in the human body: a) oxidases of D-amino acids b) glutamate dehydrogenase c) α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase d) glutamine synthetase

    <p>a, c</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose ketogenic amino acids: a) Gly b) Lys c) Leu d) Ala

    <p>a, c</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose possible ways to use nitrogen-free products of the transamination and deamination reactions: a) the synthesis of new amino acids b) use as an energy source c) conversion to glucose d) conversion to nucleotides

    <p>a, c, d</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Amino acids are the main substrates for gluconeogenesis in fasting. Choose the amino acid metabolites that can be used for the synthesis of glucose: a) pyruvate b) HMG-CoA c) acetoacetyl-CoA d) oxaloacetate

    <p>b, d</p> Signup and view all the answers

    After a meal, amino acids are the primary energy producing substrates for hepatocytes. Choose the pathways which allow to use ALA as an energy source during this period: a) synthesis of ketone bodies b) transamination c) oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate d) TCA cycle

    <p>b, c, d</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct answer. Hydrochloric acid in the stomach: a) cause denaturation of proteins b) has a bactericidal effect c) stimulates lipase d) cause activation of pepsinogen

    <p>a, c, d</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose exopeptidases: a) carboxypeptidases A and B b) aminopeptidase c) trypsin d) elastase

    <p>a, c</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the coenzyme of transaminases:

    <p>Pyridoxal phosphate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose an enzyme involved in the neutralization of biogenic amines:

    <p>Oxidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the compound that is formed from aspartate in the transamination reaction:

    <p>Oxaloacetate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Histamine is formed in the process of:

    <p>Decarboxylation of His</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the function of GABA:

    <p>Inhibitory transmitter in the central nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    From these statements, choose the one that characterizes the serotonin:

    <p>It is a transmitter in the central nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct ending of the sentence. Aminotransferases:

    <p>Use pyridoxal phosphate as a coenzyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which vitamin is a part of coenzyme that is used by amino acid decarboxylases?

    <p>Pyridoxine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Catecholamines are synthesized from:

    <p>Tyrosine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What disease is caused by the deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxylase?

    <p>Phenylketonuria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Melanin is synthesized from:

    <p>Tyrosine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme catalyzes the following reaction: Pyruvate + Glutamate ↔ Alanine + α-Ketoglutarate

    <p>Alanine aminotransferase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the missing component to the ornithine cycle reaction:

    <p>? = arginine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Select the appropriate enzyme for the ornithine cycle reaction: citrulline + aspartate → argininosuccinate

    <p>argininosuccinate synthetase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The final product of detoxification of ammonia in the liver is:

    <p>urea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Select the cause of elevated level of urea in blood:

    <p>renal failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the amino acid that participates in the formation of disulfide bonds:

    <p>cysteine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the amino acid that is a precursor of catecholamines:

    <p>tyrosine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Select the altered chemical reaction in patients with alcaptonuria:

    <p>homogentisate → fumarylacetoacetate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the enzyme that catalyzes the reaction Glu + NH3 + ATP → Gln +ADP + H3PO4:

    <p>glutamine synthetase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct statement:

    <p>carbamoylphosphate synthetase I neutralizes ammonia in the liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Select the pathology associated with DOPA decarboxylase deficiency:

    <p>Parkinson's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What transformations occur during post-transcriptional mRNA processing? Match each process to its description:

    <p>a, b = splicing, capping, polyadenylation b, d = repression, emulsification a, c = splicing, polyadenylation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The diagnosis confirmation was provided by the finding of high blood level of:

    <p>Cortisol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All these effects are characteristic of insulin, except:

    <p>It interacts with nuclear receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All statements regarding insulin are true, except:

    <p>Increases lipolysis in adipose tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Insulin is necessary for transport of glucose to the following pair of tissues:

    <p>Adipose tissue and skeletal muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Binding of insulin to its receptor results in stimulation of enzyme activity, except for:

    <p>Glycogen phosphorylase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Diabetes is characterized by all of the following metabolic changes, except:

    <p>Stimulation of lipogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glucocorticoids have a catabolic effect on:

    <p>Skeletal muscle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All the following compounds are produced in the liver, except:

    <p>Chylomicrons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One of the main functions of the liver is to maintain blood glucose level. Even with the complete exclusion of carbohydrates from the diet, glucose blood level is maintained mainly due to:

    <p>Gluconeogenesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Unconjugated bilirubin in blood is transferred bound to albumin because:

    <p>It is poorly soluble in water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Indirect bilirubin is produced in:

    <p>Macrophages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ethanol oxidation has the following characteristics:

    <p>Occurs mostly in the liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Obstructive jaundice is accompanied by increasing blood level of:

    <p>Direct bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hemolytic jaundice is accompanied by:

    <p>Stercobilin increase in urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hepatic jaundice is accompanied by:

    <p>Appearing of urobilin in urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Hageman factor:

    <p>Is a serine protease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Initiation complex of extrinsic pathway of coagulation contains:

    <p>Сa2+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Tenase complex contains:

    <p>Factor VIIIa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct statements about role of calcium ions (factor IV) in blood coagulation:

    <p>Activate some plasma clotting factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Antithrombin III:

    <p>Is a natural primary anticoagulant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The anticoagulant activity of heparin is based on:

    <p>Its ability to activate antithrombin III</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the plasminogen activators:

    <p>Protein С (S)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Protein C:

    <p>Hydrolyses factor Va</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Factor Xa:

    <p>Is a vitamin K-dependent protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Factor XIII:

    <p>Is a transpeptid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vitamin K takes part in the synthesis of γ-carboxyglutamate in:

    <p>Factor Х</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Plasma proteins have all these functions, except:

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Albumins perform all of the following functions, except:

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Haptoglobin - is:

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Paraproteinemia - is:

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The reduced content of haptoglobin in blood results in:

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct statements regarding the formation of ketone bodies:

    <p>Ketone bodies are synthesized from acetyl-CoA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In diabetes, ketosis could develop due to the following reasons:

    <p>Oxaloacetate deficiency and decreased utilization of acetyl-CoA in Krebs cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    For ketone bodies utilization, the following conditions are required:

    <p>Sufficient level of oxaloacetate in cells to ensure the functioning Krebs cycle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Choose the correct statements regarding the ketone bodies:

    <p>Ketosis develops when 'insulin/glucagon' ratio in blood decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Liberation of arachidonic acid from membrane phospholipids catalyzed by phospholipase A2 is inhibited by:

    <p>Glucocorticoids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Anti-inflammatory activity of aspirin is based on inhibition of:

    <p>Cyclooxygenase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Key enzyme in leukotriene synthesis is:

    <p>Lipoxygenase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Amino Acid Structure

    • Isoleucine side chain contains a branched hydrocarbon chain
    • Phenylalanine side chain contains an aromatic ring
    • Methionine side chain contains a sulfomethyl group
    • Histidine has basic properties
    • Glycine is the only amino acid that does not have stereo-isomers
    • Lysine, arginine, and histidine have no charge in a weakly alkaline medium
    • All hydrophobic amino acids except lysine have no charge

    Protein Structure

    • Primary structure: linear sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds
    • Primary structure is stabilized by peptide bonds
    • Basis of the protein primary structure is the polypeptide chain
    • Tertiary structure: arrangement of the entire polypeptide chain in space
    • Factors that form the protein tertiary structure: water environment, hydrophobic interactions, and ionic bonds
    • Quaternary structure: location of protomers and the character of bonds between them in an oligomeric protein

    Protein-Ligand Interactions

    • Western blot analysis involves antigen-antibody interactions
    • Protein-ligand interactions are complementary in shape and charge
    • Myoglobin has a non-protein part (heme) that binds to globin via a coordination bond
    • In lipoproteins, hydrophobic bonds are formed between lipid and protein parts
    • In nucleoproteins, ionic bonds are formed between nucleic acid and protein parts

    Protein Stability and Denaturation

    • Factors affecting protein stability: charge of the protein molecule, hydration shell, and molecular weight
    • Denaturation involves the destruction of non-covalent bonds, including hydrogen, ionic, and disulfide bonds
    • Denaturation leads to changes in protein solubility, loss of function, and changes in non-covalent bonds

    Enzymes

    • Characteristics of enzymes: high specificity, high efficiency, and optimal pH and temperature
    • Factors affecting enzyme activity: substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, pH, temperature, and inhibitors
    • Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site, while non-competitive inhibitors bind to an allosteric site
    • Allosteric effectors can be activators or inhibitors, and their action can be reversed by increasing substrate concentration
    • Coenzymes: NAD+, NADP+, FMN, and FAD are coenzymes of oxidoreductases
    • Enzyme regulation: feedback inhibition, allosteric regulation, and covalent modification

    Enzyme Kinetics

    • Michaelis-Menten constant (Km) is the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate is half-maximal
    • Km value indicates the enzyme's affinity for the substrate
    • Lineweaver-Burk graph: built in the double reciprocals of enzymatic reaction rate and substrate concentration
    • Types of enzyme inhibitors: competitive, non-competitive, and uncompetitive

    Enzyme Classification

    • Oxidoreductases: catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions
    • Transferases: catalyze the transfer of a functional group
    • Hydrolases: catalyze the hydrolysis of a covalent bond
    • Ligases: catalyze the formation of a covalent bond
    • Lyases: catalyze the cleavage of a covalent bond without hydrolysis
    • Isomerases: catalyze the rearrangement of a molecule### Enzymes
    • A quaternary structure refers to the arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains (subunits) in an enzyme
    • Enzymes have 4 isoenzyme forms
    • Lactate dehydrogenase catalyzes the reaction of reversible conversion of pyruvate to lactate
    • Oxidoreductases, like lactate dehydrogenase, catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions
    • Enzymes can be used as drugs, but their use is limited by their short duration of action, high specificity, low stability, and difficulty in obtaining highly purified preparations

    Enzyme Leaks

    • Enzyme leakage from the cell into the blood is influenced by:
      • Size of enzyme molecules
      • Presence of enzyme activators
      • Intracellular localization of enzymes
      • Enzyme life-time

    Immobilized Enzymes

    • Advantages of immobilized enzymes over non-immobilized enzymes:
      • Reusability
      • Increased stability
      • Directional transport (targeted delivery)

    Urine Diastase

    • Urine diastase is:
      • A diagnostic test for pancreatic diseases
      • Measures amylase activity in urine
      • Not a measure of starch or its cleavage products in urine

    Treatment of Septic Wounds

    • Enzymes used in treatment of septic wounds:
      • Trypsin
      • Deoxyribonuclease
      • Not alkaline phosphatase or amylase

    Pancreatic Autolysis

    • Activation of trypsin and other enzymes can lead to pancreatic autolysis

    Indicator Enzymes

    • Indicator enzymes are:
      • Enzymes whose increased activity in plasma indicates pathology in internal organs and tissues
      • Examples: aminotransferases, lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase

    Aerobic Glycolysis

    • Reaction of aerobic glycolysis associated with oxidative phosphorylation:
      • Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + NAD+ + H3PO4 → 1,3-Diphosphoglycerate + NADH

    Gluconeogenesis

    • Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources
    • Gluconeogenesis involves the reversal of glycolysis, with some modifications
    • Phosphofructokinase is not a gluconeogenic enzyme

    Glycogenolysis

    • Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
    • Glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in glycogen

    Glycogen Synthesis

    • Glycogen synthase catalyzes the formation of α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in glycogen
    • The inclusion of 1 mole of glucose into glycogen requires 6 moles of high-energy compounds

    Phosphofructokinase

    • Phosphofructokinase catalyzes the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate to fructose-1,6-diphosphate

    Glycolysis

    • Pyruvate kinase catalyzes the conversion of phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate
    • During anaerobic glycolysis, NADH is oxidized to NAD+ while reducing pyruvate to lactate
    • During aerobic glycolysis, NADH is oxidized to NAD+ in the electron transport chain

    Glucose Transport

    • Insulin-dependent glucose transporters are present in:
      • Adipose tissue
      • Skeletal muscles

    Indigestible Polysaccharides

    • Indigestible polysaccharides include:
      • Cellulose
      • Pectins
      • Not glycogen or lactulose

    Carbohydrate Metabolism

    • Stages of aerobic glucose oxidation to end products (CO2 and H2O):
      • Glycolysis
      • Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate
      • Tricarboxylic acid cycle

    Pentose Phosphate Pathway

    • The pentose phosphate pathway:
      • Generates NADPH in the cytosol
      • Provides ribose-5-phosphate for nucleic acid synthesis
      • Involves the reduction of NADP+

    Uronic Acid Pathway

    • The uronic acid pathway:
      • Provides UDP-glucuronic acid for detoxification of xenobiotics and biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycans
      • Involves the oxidation of glucose to glucuronic acid

    Glucose-6-Phosphatase Deficiency

    • Glucose-6-phosphatase deficiency leads to:
      • Von Gierke's disease
      • Impaired glycogenolysis and glucose release from the liver

    Blood Glucose Regulation

    • Insulin decreases blood glucose by:
      • Stimulating glycolysis
      • Inhibiting gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
    • Glucagon and epinephrine increase blood glucose by:
      • Stimulating glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
      • Inhibiting glycolysisHere are the study notes:
    • Lipid Metabolism*

    Fatty Acid Oxidation

    • Electron Transport Chain: Uncoupling of tissue respiration and phosphorylation occurs due to increasing the permeability of the inner mitochondrial membrane to protons.
    • Inhibitors of Cytochrome c Oxidoreductase: Cyanides bind to the iron atoms of cytochromes a and a3, inhibiting tissue respiration.

    Regulation of Lipid Metabolism

    • Regulatory Enzymes of Citric Acid Cycle: Isocitrate dehydrogenase is the regulatory enzyme of the citric acid cycle.
    • Inhibitor of Regulatory Enzymes: ATP is an inhibitor of regulatory enzymes of the citric acid cycle.

    Lipid Structure and Classification

    • Triacylglycerols: Consist of a glycerol backbone and three fatty acid chains.
    • Phospholipids: Amphipathic molecules composed of a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid chains, and a phosphate group.
    • Lecithin: A type of phospholipid with a choline head group.
    • Sphingomyelin: A type of phospholipid with a sphingosine backbone and a choline head group.
    • Styrene: A type of simple lipid.
    • Cholesterol: A type of unsaponifiable lipid.

    Lipid Digestion and Absorption

    • Lipases: Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes triacylglycerols into fatty acids and glycerol.
    • Micelle Formation: Bile salts facilitate the formation of micelles, which are absorbed into enterocytes.

    Fatty Acid Synthesis

    • Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase: The key enzyme in fatty acid synthesis, catalyzing the reaction of acetyl-CoA and CO2 to form malonyl-CoA.
    • NADPH: The coenzyme required for fatty acid synthesis.

    Cholesterol Synthesis

    • Mevalonate: An intermediate in cholesterol synthesis.
    • Farnesyl Pyrophosphate: An intermediate in cholesterol synthesis, with 15 carbon atoms.

    Eicosanoids

    • Arachidonic Acid: The precursor for eicosanoid synthesis.
    • Thromboxanes: Involved in platelet aggregation.

    Let me know if you'd like me to clarify or expand on any of these points!

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