Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary characteristic of atrophy in cellular adaptation?

  • Increase in cell number
  • Decrease in cell size (correct)
  • Reprogramming of stem cells
  • Replacement of one cell type with another

Which condition is an example of physiological hypertrophy?

  • Ear cells changing to skin cells
  • Heart muscle growth due to hypertension
  • Enlargement of muscles with increased exercise (correct)
  • Increased cell division in the lining of the uterus

What distinguishes hyperplasia from hypertrophy?

  • Hypertrophy is an increase in cell number
  • Hypertrophy and hyperplasia cannot occur simultaneously
  • Hyperplasia involves an increase in cell division (correct)
  • Hyperplasia results in larger cells

Which type of cellular adaptation involves the replacement of one mature cell type by another?

<p>Metaplasia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about dysplasia is true?

<p>It does not necessarily lead to cancer (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of pathologic hypertrophy in the heart?

<p>It is secondary to diseases such as hypertension (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers compensatory hyperplasia in the liver?

<p>Removal of part of the liver (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which situation would metaplasia most likely occur?

<p>Due to chronic inflammation or irritation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first phase of nociception?

<p>Transduction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter acts as a pain inhibitor in the spinal cord?

<p>GABA (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does modulation play in nociception?

<p>It suppresses or facilitates the transmission of pain signals. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following neurotransmitters enhances pain perception?

<p>Glutamate (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of nociceptors in pain processing?

<p>They conduct pain impulses to the spinal cord. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common cause of cell injury related to oxygen deprivation?

<p>Hypoxia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs after hypoxia leads to a reduced ATP production in cells?

<p>Na+/K+-ATPase failure (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of injury is specifically associated with oxidative stress due to reactive oxygen species?

<p>Reperfusion injury (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an external source of reactive oxygen species (ROS)?

<p>Radiation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of lactic acid production in cells due to hypoxia?

<p>Cell swelling (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism does carbon monoxide use to cause tissue injury?

<p>Binding to hemoglobin instead of oxygen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a result of free radical activity?

<p>Increased ATP production (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of biological activation of toxic metabolites in cell injury?

<p>Creating toxic byproducts like NAPQI (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about irreversible injury is true?

<p>Irreversible injury may result from prolonged ischemia. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most common type of cellular accumulation caused by hypoxia?

<p>Water accumulation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which systemic sign is NOT typically associated with cell injury?

<p>Weight gain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what condition does metastatic calcification typically occur?

<p>Hyperparathyroidism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does calcium play in cellular functions under normal conditions?

<p>Acts as a second messenger (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes dystrophic calcifications?

<p>Calcium deposits in dead or dying tissues (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of hypoxia on ATP production and ion exchange in cells?

<p>Reduced ATP production and failure of Na+/K+-ATPase (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT related to immunological inflammatory conditions?

<p>Hypoxia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes necrosis compared to apoptosis?

<p>It involves swelling and rupture of cells. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of necrosis is specifically associated with tuberculosis?

<p>Caseous necrosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which condition does fat necrosis occur?

<p>Acute pancreatitis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome of coagulative necrosis?

<p>Firm, pale tissue indicative of infarcts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes dry gangrene?

<p>Arterial blood supply is absent while venous flow continues. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining difference between wet gangrene and dry gangrene?

<p>Wet gangrene involves necrotic tissue becoming liquefied. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of necrosis is specifically associated with immune-mediated damage?

<p>Fibrinoid necrosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is associated with the accumulation of urate, resulting in gout?

<p>Uric acid production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of nociceptor is responsible for transmitting sharp pain from mechanical stimuli?

<p>A-delta fibers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the inhibitory interneurons in pain transmission?

<p>Modulating pain transmission (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which tract is responsible for carrying slow impulses related to dull chronic pain and temperature?

<p>Paleospinothalamic tract (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the maximum intensity of pain that a person can endure?

<p>Pain tolerance (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the effect of inhibitory neurotransmitters on pain transmission?

<p>They reduce the number of pain messages transmitted. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Atrophy

A decrease in cell size, which can affect organs or tissues. It can be a natural part of development (physiological) or caused by factors like reduced blood supply, decreased workload, or nerve damage (pathological).

Hypertrophy

An increase in cell size, which can affect organs or tissues. This can be a normal response to increased demands (physiological) or a result of disease (pathological).

Hyperplasia

An increase in cell number, caused by increased cell division. This can be a normal response to tissue damage or growth (physiological) or an abnormal proliferation of cells (pathological).

Metaplasia

The transformation of one mature cell type into another mature cell type. This is reversible and often occurs in response to chronic irritation or inflammation.

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Dysplasia

Disordered cell growth, also known as atypical hyperplasia. This is a change in the normal shape, size, and organization of mature cells and is always pathological.

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Cell Injury

The process of cell injury.

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Adaptive Changes

The five types of adaptive changes that cells can undergo in response to stress or injury. They are Atrophy, Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Metaplasia, and Dysplasia.

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What is cellular adaptation?

Changes happen to cells in response to stress.

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Hypoxia

Insufficient oxygen supply to cells, leading to reduced ATP production and cellular dysfunction.

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Anoxia

Complete lack of oxygen supply to cells, resulting in irreversible cell damage.

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Free Radicals

Highly reactive molecules with an unpaired electron, damaging cell components like lipids, proteins, and DNA.

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Oxidative Stress

A state of imbalance where free radical generation exceeds the body's antioxidant defenses, leading to cellular damage.

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Lipid Peroxidation

The process of lipid peroxidation - breaking down of cell membranes, leading to cell lysis.

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Reperfusion Injury

Injury caused by restoring blood flow to a previously hypoxic tissue, leading to the release of free radicals that cause further damage.

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Chemicals/Toxins

Substances that cause cell injury through direct interaction or by producing toxic metabolites.

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Biological Activation of Toxic Metabolites

The process of converting a drug into a toxic metabolite, often by the liver, leading to cell damage.

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Infectious Potential of a Microorganism

The ability of a microorganism to enter the body, cause tissue damage, produce toxins, or trigger damaging hypersensitivity reactions.

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Immunological Inflammatory Conditions

Injury caused by the immune system or inflammatory processes, often involving cellular and chemical components, membrane alterations, and complement damage.

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Reversible Cell Injury

A type of cell injury where the cell can recover and return to normal function.

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Irreversible Cell Injury

A type of cell injury where the damage is too severe, and the cell dies.

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Cellular Accumulations

Occurs whenever normal substances are produced in excess, normal or abnormal substances are ineffectively catabolized, or harmful exogenous materials accumulate inside the cell.

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Cellular Swelling (Water Accumulation)

Most common type of degenerative change in cells caused by a shift of extracellular water into the cells, leading to swelling.

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How Hypoxia Causes Cellular Swelling

A process that occurs due to hypoxia, resulting in reduced ATP production, failure of ion pumps, and an influx of sodium and calcium ions, leading to water accumulation and cell swelling.

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Dystrophic Calcification

A type of calcification that occurs in dead or dying tissues, often seen in areas of necrosis, such as heart valves and tumors.

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Transduction (in pain)

The process of converting potentially harmful stimuli into an electrical signal, marking the first step in pain perception.

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Transmission (in pain)

The transmission of pain signals along specific nerve fibers to the brain, involving the spinal cord, brainstem, and thalamus.

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Perception (in pain)

The conscious awareness of pain, involving the interpretation and evaluation of the pain signals.

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Modulation (in pain)

The physiological process of regulating and modulating pain signals, involving both suppression and enhancement of transmission.

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Nociceptors

Specialized sensory neurons that detect and respond to potentially harmful stimuli, initiating the pain pathway.

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Steatosis

A condition where fat accumulates within liver cells, often caused by excessive alcohol consumption or obesity.

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Necrosis

A type of cell death that occurs due to injury or disease, typically affecting cells in a larger group.

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Liquefactive Necrosis

A type of necrosis characterized by the liquefaction of tissue, often seen in brain infarctions (strokes) or infections.

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Caseous Necrosis

A form of necrosis seen in tuberculosis (TB), characterized by a white, soft, cheesy appearance.

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Gout Pain

The accumulation of uric acid crystals in the joints, causing inflammation and pain.

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Fat Necrosis

A type of necrosis that occurs in the pancreas, characterized by chalky white areas resulting from the release of lipases from damaged cells.

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Fibrinoid Necrosis

A type of necrosis that occurs in vessel walls, characterized by a thickening and pinkish red color.

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Apoptosis

A form of cell death that is programmed and regulated, occurring in a controlled manner.

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What are nociceptors?

Nociceptors are sensory receptors that detect painful stimuli. They have bare nerve endings located in various tissues like skin, muscles, joints, and organs. There are three types of noxious stimuli they respond to: mechanical, thermal, and chemical.

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Describe Myelinated A-delta fibers.

Myelinated A-delta fibers are faster and more localized in their pain transmission. They convey sharp, pricking pain, like a burn or a pinprick. These fibers can even trigger a spinal reflex before the pain signal reaches the brain.

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Describe Unmyelinated C fibers.

Unmyelinated C fibers are slower and transmit dull, aching pain. They also carry burning sensations and are poorly localized. Both A-delta and C fibers transmit pain signals to the spinal cord.

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What is the role of interneurons in pain transmission?

Inhibitory and excitatory interneurons are responsible for regulating pain transmission. They act as 'gates' in the spinal cord, either increasing or decreasing the flow of pain signals to the brain.

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Explain the role of projection neurons in pain transmission.

Projection neurons are responsible for carrying pain signals from the spinal cord to the brain. They ascend through the spinothalamic tracts, which have two pathways: the neospinothalamic tract for fast, acute pain and the paleospinothalamic tract for slower, chronic pain.

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Study Notes

Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology

  • Cells adapt and protect themselves from injury through five types of adaptive changes:
    • Atrophy: Decrease in cell size, can affect organs or tissues.
      • Physiological: Occurs during development, like the thymus shrinking.
      • Pathological: Caused by changes in blood supply or workload.
    • Hypertrophy: Increase in cell size, often affecting organs or tissues.
      • Physiological: Muscles grow with increased use, as seen in the heart. This is reversible.
      • Pathological: Cardiac hypertrophy, in response to hypertension or coronary artery disease, is irreversible.
    • Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number due to increased cell division. Can affect organs.
      • Physiological: Liver regeneration after injury, or uterine lining thickening.
      • Pathological: Abnormal proliferation of cells can be a sign of cancer.
    • Metaplasia: Mature cell type is replaced by another mature cell type. This is reversible.
      • Examples include: smoking causing a change in lung cell types.
    • Dysplasia: Deranged cell growth, atypical hyperplasia. Abnormal changes in cell shape, size, or organization. Not necessarily cancer but can progress to cancer. Always pathological.

Cell Injury

  • Caused by:
    • Hypoxia: Insufficient oxygen supply.
      • Anoxia: complete deprivation of oxygen.
      • Common cause of cell injury
    • Free Radicals: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as H2O2, ●OH, O2.
      • Oxidative stress: imbalance between free radical generation and antioxidant defenses.
      • Leads to lipid peroxidation and membrane damage.
    • Toxic injuries: Direct damage, overdose, and biological activation.
    • Infections: Microorganisms invading and damaging tissues.

Cellular Accumulations

  • Normal substances produced in excess or abnormal substances or exogenous materials not catabolized effectively.
  • Water: Cell Swelling (most reversible effect of hypoxia); occurs when water moves into the cell.
  • Calcium: (acts as second messenger) normally has low concentration. Causes cellular damage when accumulated inside cells.

Cell Death

  • Apoptosis: Programmed cell death.
  • Necrosis: Unregulated cell death (injury); causes cell swelling and rupture.

Types of Necrosis

  • Caseous necrosis: White, soft, and cheesy tissue (e.g., in Tuberculosis).
  • Fat necrosis: Chalky, white areas in tissues (e.g., in acute pancreatitis).
  • Fibrinoid necrosis: Thickened, pinkish-red vessel walls (e.g., in immune reactions).
  • Gangrene: Areas of necrotic tissue due to ischemia (e.g. in a limb or bowel).
    • Dry gangrene: Tissue is dry and firm.
    • Wet gangrene: Tissue is swollen and contains fluid; often found in venous blood flow issues.

Neuropathic Pain

  • Result of damage to the peripheral or central nervous systems.
  • Can lead to chronic pain.

Nociception: The Processing of Potentially Harmful Stimuli

  • Transduction: Conversion of stimuli to an electrical signal.
  • Transmission: Conduction of signals along nerve pathways.
  • Perception: Awareness of the pain.
  • Modulation: Modification of pain signaling.

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Pathophysiology Quiz 1 Study Guide PDF

Description

This quiz explores the mechanisms of cellular adaptation and the five types of adaptive changes: atrophy, hypertrophy, hyperplasia, metaplasia, and dysplasia. Understand how these processes affect tissue health and contribute to various pathological conditions. Ideal for students studying advanced biology or medicine.

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