Podcast
Questions and Answers
Which of the following best describes alertness?
Which of the following best describes alertness?
- A state of full awareness of the surroundings. (correct)
- A state of decreased awareness.
- A state of being asleep.
- A state of selective attention.
According to the information provided, what characterizes the individual factor influencing alertness?
According to the information provided, what characterizes the individual factor influencing alertness?
- Physical, emotional, and mental state. (correct)
- External noises.
- Presence of circadian rhythms.
- Level of illumination.
What is the environmental factor listed as determining alertness?
What is the environmental factor listed as determining alertness?
- Emotional state
- Illumination and noise (correct)
- Mental acuity
- Physical health
Which of the following is true regarding the typical human sleep cycle?
Which of the following is true regarding the typical human sleep cycle?
Which physiological change is characteristic of Non-REM sleep?
Which physiological change is characteristic of Non-REM sleep?
What neurotransmitter initiates REM sleep?
What neurotransmitter initiates REM sleep?
During which stage of sleep do most dreams occur?
During which stage of sleep do most dreams occur?
According to the information provided, when are dreams most likely to occur?
According to the information provided, when are dreams most likely to occur?
According to the 'cognitive school' explanation, what is a proposed cause of dreams?
According to the 'cognitive school' explanation, what is a proposed cause of dreams?
Which vulnerable population typically experiences increased sleep duration?
Which vulnerable population typically experiences increased sleep duration?
Which of the following conditions is associated with increased sleep duration?
Which of the following conditions is associated with increased sleep duration?
What is the primary purpose of a sleep laboratory?
What is the primary purpose of a sleep laboratory?
What is the role of thalamo-cortical connections in attention?
What is the role of thalamo-cortical connections in attention?
What is the term for focusing on a stimulus?
What is the term for focusing on a stimulus?
Which of the following is characteristic of 'dividing attention'?
Which of the following is characteristic of 'dividing attention'?
What can affect attention?
What can affect attention?
Which stimulus characteristic is most likely to increase attention?
Which stimulus characteristic is most likely to increase attention?
What sensory process involves encoding, registration and retrieval?
What sensory process involves encoding, registration and retrieval?
Which of the following describes the encoding stage of memory?
Which of the following describes the encoding stage of memory?
Which type of memory is characterized by a limited duration of 15-20 seconds?
Which type of memory is characterized by a limited duration of 15-20 seconds?
What is the estimated capacity of short-term memory?
What is the estimated capacity of short-term memory?
Which strategies can improve memory?
Which strategies can improve memory?
What term describes difficulty encoding, registering or retrieval that leads to memory failure?
What term describes difficulty encoding, registering or retrieval that leads to memory failure?
Which of the following best describes 'proactive interference' in memory?
Which of the following best describes 'proactive interference' in memory?
What term describes remembering distorted things that didn't happen?
What term describes remembering distorted things that didn't happen?
Which process is a mental interpretation of stimuli?
Which process is a mental interpretation of stimuli?
What is the first stage of perception?
What is the first stage of perception?
Which of the following is considered a factor affecting perception?
Which of the following is considered a factor affecting perception?
What term describes perceiving stimuli as a whole?
What term describes perceiving stimuli as a whole?
What is the term for the tendency to see similar and symmetrical stimuli organized together, including the filling in of missing details?
What is the term for the tendency to see similar and symmetrical stimuli organized together, including the filling in of missing details?
Which of these perceptual cues primarily contributes to depth perception in monocular vision?
Which of these perceptual cues primarily contributes to depth perception in monocular vision?
What is the effect called when consecutive switching on and off of lamps implies a spark is moving along lamps?
What is the effect called when consecutive switching on and off of lamps implies a spark is moving along lamps?
What type of motion occurs when a large object moves with a small one static?
What type of motion occurs when a large object moves with a small one static?
Which statement best defines 'thinking'?
Which statement best defines 'thinking'?
What are the mental representations and properties of concepts?
What are the mental representations and properties of concepts?
What is the aim of critical logical thinking?
What is the aim of critical logical thinking?
Which brain region is responsible for thinking?
Which brain region is responsible for thinking?
Which term is used to describe the ideas disrupted by illness?
Which term is used to describe the ideas disrupted by illness?
Which brain area is associated with language?
Which brain area is associated with language?
In language development, which milestone typically occurs around 2-3 years of age?
In language development, which milestone typically occurs around 2-3 years of age?
What does language consist of?
What does language consist of?
When assessing a child with delayed language development, which is essential for thorough analysis?
When assessing a child with delayed language development, which is essential for thorough analysis?
What represents an individual's potential?
What represents an individual's potential?
What is the formula for calculating IQ?
What is the formula for calculating IQ?
If an individual's mental age is 15 and their chronological age is 10, what is their calculated IQ?
If an individual's mental age is 15 and their chronological age is 10, what is their calculated IQ?
Flashcards
What is Alertness?
What is Alertness?
A state of full awareness of the surroundings, gauged by the Glasgow coma scale.
Factors determining Alertness
Factors determining Alertness
Factors include physical, emotional, and mental state of the individual, as well as environmental elements like illumination and noise.
What is Sleep?
What is Sleep?
An active circadian physiological alteration of alertness that allows for physical and psychological restoration.
What is the Sleep Cycle?
What is the Sleep Cycle?
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What is Non-REM sleep?
What is Non-REM sleep?
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What is REM sleep?
What is REM sleep?
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What are Dreams?
What are Dreams?
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What is Sleep Debt?
What is Sleep Debt?
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What is Sleep Deprivation?
What is Sleep Deprivation?
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Sleep in Infants
Sleep in Infants
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Sleep in the Elderly
Sleep in the Elderly
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Sleep during Pregnancy
Sleep during Pregnancy
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What is Attention?
What is Attention?
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The Brain's Role in Attention
The Brain's Role in Attention
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Attention span
Attention span
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Shifting Attention
Shifting Attention
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Dividing Attention
Dividing Attention
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Individual Factors Increasing Attention
Individual Factors Increasing Attention
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Stimulus Factors Increasing Attention
Stimulus Factors Increasing Attention
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What is Memory?
What is Memory?
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Encoding
Encoding
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Registration
Registration
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Retrieval
Retrieval
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Short-Term Memory Characteristics
Short-Term Memory Characteristics
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Long-Term Memory Characteristics
Long-Term Memory Characteristics
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Function of Short-Term Memory
Function of Short-Term Memory
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Factors Improving Memory
Factors Improving Memory
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Proactive Interference
Proactive Interference
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Retroactive Interference
Retroactive Interference
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False Memory Syndrome
False Memory Syndrome
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What is Perception?
What is Perception?
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what are the stages of Percetption?
what are the stages of Percetption?
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Individual factors affecting perception.
Individual factors affecting perception.
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Perception of motion
Perception of motion
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Induced motion
Induced motion
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What is Thinking?
What is Thinking?
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What are Concepts?
What are Concepts?
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What is A Problem?
What is A Problem?
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Content of Thinking
Content of Thinking
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What is Language?
What is Language?
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Study Notes
- Faculty of Medicine, Helwan National University
- Academic Year: 2024-2025
- Year: 1
- Semester: 2
- Module: Locomotor system (Ics) 105
- By: Dr. Haytham Hasan, Associate Professor
- Department of Neuropsychiatry
Objectives
- Understand alertness & sleep
- Explain attention mechanisms
- Describe memory processes
Alertness
- Alertness is a state of full awareness of the surroundings.
- Alertness is measured by the Glasgow Coma Scale.
- Factors determining alertness include individual physical, emotional, and mental state.
- Environment factors that determine alertness include illumination and noise.
States
- Sleep is an active circadian physiological alteration of alertness used for physical and psychological restoration.
Sleep Cycle
- A pattern of electrochemical changes in the brain occurs every 2 hours of sleep.
- Short sleepers (6 hours/night) experience 3 cycles.
- Long sleepers (8 hours/night) experience 4 cycles per night.
- Non-Rapid eye movement has 4 sub-stages
- Stages include Rapid eye movement and non-REM.
- Non-REM occurs at the beginning and end of each sleep cycle
- REM sleep occurs in the middle of each sleep cycle
- Non-REM why: Physical restoration
- REM Sleep why: Psychological restoration Dreams
- Stage 1 : 5 minutes
- Stage 2 : 20 minutes
- Stage 3 : 30 minutes
- Stage 4 : N/A
- Theta waves appear in EEG during stage 1.
- Sleep spindles appear during stage 2.
- Delta waves appear during stage 3.
- Delta waves predominate during stage 4.
- Most dreaming occurs near dawn, since the ratio of REM sleep increases throughout the night.
Dreams
- Dreams can be described as mental experiences that occur during the REM stage of sleep.
- Dreams involve images and ideas unbound by logical thinking.
- Intense emotions are possible during dreams.
- Unpleasant dreams can be called nightmares.
Dream Explanations
- Biological School: Electrochemical changes
- Cognitive School: Brain interprets stimuli perceived in altered awareness.
- Analytical School: Freud postulated that dreams symbolize and fulfill repressed wishes in our past.
Sleep in Vulnerable Groups
- Infants sleep longer (16 hours) and show greater REM.
- Elderly have decreased REM sleep.
- Pregnant women have increased sleep duration, especially in the 1st 3 months of pregnancy.
- Medical illnesses such as hypothyroidism increase sleep, while thyrotoxicosis decreases sleep.
- Psychiatric illnesses such as depression increase sleep, while anxiety and painful conditions decrease sleep.
- Sleep debt is the duration of sleep increases if sleep deprivation occurs the day before.
- Sleep deprivation can cause serious mental and physical consequences.
- A sleep laboratory is equipped with EEG, EMG, ECG, respiratory function tests, and video to diagnose sleep disorders.
Attention
- Attention is the process by which stimuli are selected for further processing while neglecting others.
- Thalamo-cortical connections, mainly frontal, are responsible for attention.
- This process could be spontaneous involuntary or voluntary i.e. intended concentration on a stimulus
Attention Types
- Attention span is a concentration sustained attention, affected in ADHD.
- Shifting attention involves moving from task to task under voluntary control, affected in mania.
- Dividing attention may be sequential, one task after another, or parallel, several tasks at once, affected in anxiety.
- Attention can be affected by illness or exhaustion.
Factors Increasing Attention
- Individual attributes: physical and emotional state (drives and needs) and mental expectations.
- Stimulus attributes: intensity, size, contrast, repetition, motion, novelty, and familiarity.
Memory
- Memory is a process by which information is stored.
- Multiple regions in the temporal lobe are involved in memory.
Memory Involves 3 Steps
- Encoding means putting information into memory and electrochemical changes when information comes from sensory input.
- Registration involves holding encoded information in memory until time of retrieval, be it short or long term memory.
- Retrieval involves using information stored in memory.
Memory Types
- Short term memory has a limited duration of 15-20 seconds and a limited capacity of 7±2 bits of information. Short term memory involves reverberating circuits.
- Long term memory has a lifelong duration and a huge capacity. Long term memory involves DNA and protein synthesis.
Memory Functions
- Short term memory handles current information until important parts are chosen for consolidation in long term memory.
- Long term memory includes procedural, semantic, and episodic storage.
Factors Improving Memory
- Individual attributes: includes a physical, emotional, and mental state
- Attributes of Meaningful memories: organized (rhyming, mind map, chunking, chaining) and rehearsed and repeated.
Disorders of Memory
- Amnesia (Forgetting) is due to failure of encoding (dementia, anxiety), registration (head trauma & narcotics) or retrieval (dissociative disorders) or also interference.
- Proactive interference: old memories cause difficulty with new ones.
- Retroactive interference: new memories impair old ones.
- False memory syndrome: remembering distorted things that didn't happen under the effect of suggestion.
Perception
- Perception can be defined as a mental process of interpreting sensory stimuli, or it is the process by which we integrate primary simple stimuli into secondary complex sets of stimuli
- Percepts are the images of objects or voices.
Perception Stages
- Segregation of object from background
- Localization
- Motion determination
Factors Affecting Perception
- Individual: (top-down processing) as to physical, emotional and mental state
- Stimulus organization: (bottom-up processing)
Gestalt
- Gestalt perception is to perceive stimuli as a whole where every detail influence the perception
- Similarity: Similar symmetrical stimuli are organized together
- There is a tendency of closure and continuity of missing details.
Vision
- Relative size
- Superposition
- Height in field & linear intersections implies depth in monocular vision.
- In binocular vision, two different retinal images from different angles imply depth.
Motion
- Consecutive switch on and off of lamps implies a spark is moving along lamps, known as stroboscopic motion
- Induced motion occurs when a large object moves with a small one static.
Thinking
- A mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing or communication information to others.
- Thinking doesn't depend directly upon contact with the immediate physical environment.
- Thinking can be considered “Language of the Mind".
- It is the process by which we associate percepts to form concepts (mental representations) and attributes (properties of concepts).
- Concepts are the building blocks of mental representations and thoughts.
- A concept is the idea referred to objects such as mental categories we form to group objects, events or situations that share common characteristics or features.
- Attributes are the elements of stimuli which are abstracted to enable formation of concepts.
- A problem is a gap between what one finds and what one wishes, which is decreased by a solution until it vanishes.
Types of Thinking
- Primary Magical - Aim: gratify wishes - Technique: imaginative play/daydreams.
- Critical Logical - Aim: problem solving - Technique: algorithms.
- Parallel Creative - Aim: invention - Technique: heuristics
Brain Components
- Prefrontal cortex and its connections to parieto-temporal association areas are responsible for thinking.
Disorders of Thinking
- Content is ideas themselves, and associations of percepts are disrupted by illness.
- Form or process is continuity of ideas; associations are disrupted, and there is discontinuity of ideas.
Language
- Language is a system of symbols to communicate ideas.
- listening, speaking, reading, writing
- Language consists of: phonemes (spoken words), morphemes (written words), semantics (meanings), syntax (grammar) and pragmatics (context)
Language Development
- Skinner postulates that language development occurs by operant learning.
- Chomsky postulates a brain imprinted language acquisition device (LAD)
Milestones of Language Development
- During the first year, babbling laryngeal sounds
- 1-2 years, vocabulary of around 25 words
- 2-3 years, 2 word sentences
- 4 years and above use grammatical words
Requirements for Intact Thought
- Auditory apparatus (ear)
- Auditory pathway
- 1ry & 2ry Auditory cortex
- Wernick's area (receptive).
- Broca's or Exner's area (expressive).
- motor cortex with extra-pyramidal & cerebellar modulation.
- motor pathways to speech apparatus
- Speech apparatus: oral cavity (lips, cheeks, jaw, teeth, tongue, pharynx, palate) respiratory system (nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs) diaphragm and abdominal muscles.
Delayed Language
- Thorough assessment is required:
- Ear
- Speech apparatus,
- Nervous system
- IQ assessment,
- specific assessment of child's behavior to rule out autism.
- Assessment of emotional disorders.
Abilities
- Achievement is actual
- Capacity is potential
- Aptitude is predicted
Intelligence
- Intelligence is the ability to learn and adapt to the environment.
- Spearman intelligence is measurable as a general factor.
- William Stern offered the intelligence quotient as IQ = (mental age / chronologic age) x 100
Tests to Measure IQ
- Stanford binet test
- Wechsler intelligence test
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