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Questions and Answers
According to Plato, how did he view old age?
According to Plato, how did he view old age?
What is the branch of science that deals with the knowledge and study of the elderly?
What is the branch of science that deals with the knowledge and study of the elderly?
Gerontology
Gerontology is a multidimensional field with a focus on biopsychosocial identity.
Gerontology is a multidimensional field with a focus on biopsychosocial identity.
True
____________ is a natural biological process that begins at birth and ends at death.
____________ is a natural biological process that begins at birth and ends at death.
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Match the following branches with their descriptions:
Match the following branches with their descriptions:
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According to the WHO's 4-factor model, what are the added factors to active ageing?
According to the WHO's 4-factor model, what are the added factors to active ageing?
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According to the WHO, which factors are considered cross-cutting determinants of ageing? (Select all that apply)
According to the WHO, which factors are considered cross-cutting determinants of ageing? (Select all that apply)
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The theory of involution or retrogenesis suggests that people gain skills in the reverse order in which they learned them.
The theory of involution or retrogenesis suggests that people gain skills in the reverse order in which they learned them.
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According to Erikson, the virtue associated with the phase of Autonomy vs Shame is _________.
According to Erikson, the virtue associated with the phase of Autonomy vs Shame is _________.
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Match the following theories of aging with their descriptions:
Match the following theories of aging with their descriptions:
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Which types of strokes are mentioned in the text?
Which types of strokes are mentioned in the text?
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Which system experiences a decrease in muscle mass as individuals age?
Which system experiences a decrease in muscle mass as individuals age?
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Elderly individuals may experience decreased taste buds which can lead to loss of enjoyment in food.
Elderly individuals may experience decreased taste buds which can lead to loss of enjoyment in food.
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Presbycusis is the gradual loss of ____ due to age-related deterioration.
Presbycusis is the gradual loss of ____ due to age-related deterioration.
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What are some factors that can affect the adjustment to retirement?
What are some factors that can affect the adjustment to retirement?
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What is one of the factors that may affect how an individual copes with the death of their partner, according to the text?
What is one of the factors that may affect how an individual copes with the death of their partner, according to the text?
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What are some feelings associated with normal grief? (Select all that apply)
What are some feelings associated with normal grief? (Select all that apply)
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True or False: Pathological grief involves accepting the loss and experiencing the emotional response immediately.
True or False: Pathological grief involves accepting the loss and experiencing the emotional response immediately.
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____________ start to take responsibility for the well-being of the elderly.
____________ start to take responsibility for the well-being of the elderly.
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Match the following types of grandparents with their descriptions:
Match the following types of grandparents with their descriptions:
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What are some common myths about sexuality in old age highlighted in the text?
What are some common myths about sexuality in old age highlighted in the text?
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What are some objectives of retirement programs according to the content?
What are some objectives of retirement programs according to the content?
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What are some features of retirement programs as mentioned in the content?
What are some features of retirement programs as mentioned in the content?
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Old age is often spoken of negatively in society according to the content.
Old age is often spoken of negatively in society according to the content.
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According to the content, old age is considered as a ____________ constructed reality.
According to the content, old age is considered as a ____________ constructed reality.
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Match the following personality factors with their descriptions:
Match the following personality factors with their descriptions:
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Study Notes
Introduction to Psychogerontology
- Ageing population: a growing concern in modern society
- Brief history of Psychogerontology:
- Plato: viewed old age as a positive stage of life
- Aristotle: saw old age as a disease and a ruin
- Scientific background: development of research and studies using the scientific method
- Francis Bacon: introduced the cross-sectional method
- Quetelet: emphasized the importance of biological and social aspects
- Galton: used the longitudinal method
- Hall: recognized that not all older people are the same
- Bühler: valued old age and the whole developmental process
- Cowdry: consolidated the concept of gerontology with a holistic approach (biological, psychological, and social)
Gerontology: Conceptualization
- Definition: the discipline that studies both the ageing process and the state called old age, as well as the specific conditions of the elderly person
- Key aspects:
- Older person: a person over 65 years old
- Old age: a further stage of life that ends with death
- Ageing: a natural biological process that begins at birth and ends at death
- Primary and secondary ageing factors:
- Primary: uncontrollable factors (e.g., menopause)
- Secondary: controllable factors (e.g., exposure to environmental pollution)
Gerontology: Objectives
- Two main objectives:
- Quantitative: extending life expectancy
- Qualitative: improving the quality of life
- Both objectives are essential and interconnected
Gerontology: Characteristics
- Reflects on the existence of the individual
- Reflects on society
- Multidisciplinary (biological, social, and psychological)
Gerontology: Resources
- International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics
- Spanish Society of Geriatrics and Gerontology
- Spanish Association of Psychogerontology
Psychogerontology: Definition
- A sub-discipline of psychology concerned with the study of ageing, old age, and the applications of this knowledge to promote the well-being of older people and their carers
Research Designs
- Longitudinal design: studying the same person at different moments
- Advantages: non-causality, intra-individual similarities and differences, evolutionary change
- Limitations: time-consuming, costly, familiarity testing, experimental mortality, cohort effect
- Cross-sectional design: studying different people at the same time
- Advantages: more economical, shorter in time, no loss of participants
- Limitations: no intra-individual change visible, no evolution visible, cohort effect
- Sequential design: studying different generations and ages at different times
- Advantages: no cohort effect
- Limitations: costly, slow, does not solve all disadvantages of the other designs
Ageing Population
- Reasons for ageing population:
- Decrease in mortality rate
- Declining birth rate
- Increased life expectancy
- Consequences of population aging:
- Increased risk of cognitive impairment
- Greater need for social and health care services
- Affects autonomy, independence, and quality of life
- Need to promote "active ageing"
Myths and Realities
- Stereotypes: shared beliefs about the characteristics of a social group
- Function of negative stereotypes about old age:
- Encourage older people to assume stereotypes
- Encourage incapacity and dependency
- Age discrimination (ageism): treating someone unfairly based on their age
Dismantling Stereotypes
- Biomedical model vs. Biopsychosocial model
- Deterioration (pathological) ≠ Decline (natural process)
- Cognitive functioning: decline depends on the type of cognitive function
- Emotion and affect: less emotion and more self-regulation
- Personality: older people remain the same as they are throughout their lives
- Social relationships: decrease due to mortality issues, but stronger relationships remain
Different Ages
- Types of age:
- Chronological: number of years since birth
- Biological: physiological changes (e.g., menopause)
- Psychological: cognitive processes
- Subjective: age one feels oneself to be
- Cultural: social roles related to age
- Functional: level of autonomy
- Old age classification:
- Normal: old age without disease/disability but high risk of disease/disability
- Pathologic: characterized by diseases and disabilities
- Successful/Satisfactory: disability prevention, high physical/cognitive functioning, active participation in social and productive activities
Theories of Ageing
-
Developmental Theories (Piaget, Erikson):
- Piaget: focused on cognitive development in childhood and adolescence
- Erikson: focused on the whole life cycle, including old age
-
Activity Theories (Havighurst):
- Importance of activity in old age
- Research showed that active people were more fulfilled and satisfied
-
Disengagement Theories (Cumming and Henry):
- Passive role in old age
- Reduced social relationships = feelings of contentment
-
Continuity Theories (Atchley):
- Argues for continuing development in old age
- Balance between continuity and internal and external structural changes
-
Selective Optimisation with Compensation (Baltes and Baltes):
- Creating alternative strategies to compensate for deterioration
- Optimisation, selection, compensation, and normalisation### Introduction to Psychogerontology
-
Psychogerontology is the study of the life cycle, with a focus on balance between gains and losses throughout the life stages.
Physical Changes
Brain Ageing
- Decrease in brain size and slowing down of neuronal connections
- Loss of functional capacity, but learning can still continue
- Decrease in neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline, acetylcholine, dopamine)
Physical Appearance
- Skin: less flexible, dry, thin, with freckles and uneven pigmentation
- Hair: becomes whiter, thinner, paler, and may fall out
- Body Posture: decrease in height and weight, leading to problems maintaining an upright position
- Body Fat: redistributed, with decrease in face, feet, and arms, and increase in lower abdomen and face
- Teeth: may fall out
Health Problems
- Arthritis: inflammation in the joints
- Hypertension: high blood pressure
- Deafness: decrease in audition
- Cardiovascular diseases: arrhythmias, heart attacks
- Cancer: more frequent in old age
- Hardening of the arteries: may promote strokes
- Osteoporosis: excessive bone loss
Organs of the Human Body
Cardiovascular System
- Cardiovascular disease and likelihood of stroke increase with age
- Changes in the heart and blood vessels
- Major cause of death in older people: heart disease
Respiratory System
- Respiratory rate remains constant, but respiratory capacity decreases
- Most common respiratory diseases: tuberculosis, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Bones, Muscles, and Body
- Muscle mass decreases, leading to weakness
- Bone mass is lost, leading to fragility and increased risk of breaks
Gastrointestinal System
- Liver shrinks, leading to jaundice and cirrhosis
- Indigestion and gas are common
Urinary System
- Bladder capacity decreases
- Incontinence is frequent, especially in older women
- Decreased agility to reach the toilet can cause anxiety
Endocrine System
- Decreased hormone secretion
- Organs that produce hormones are controlled by other hormones, leading to a chain reaction of decreased secretion
Immunological System
- Reduced functioning, making older people more likely to get sick
- Exercise and flu vaccines can help
Sensory Changes
Vision
- Presbyopia: near vision gets worse
- Worsening of the retina, leading to difficulties in visual acuity, color perception, and depth perception
- Diseases: cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment
Audition
- Presbycusis: gradual loss of hearing due to age-related deterioration
- Tinnitus: ringing or other noises in the ears
- Hearing loss can lead to emotional problems and social isolation
Taste
- Decreased taste buds, leading to weaker teeth and gums
- Decreased enjoyment of food, which can lead to social isolation and malnutrition
Smell
- Larger nose and more nasal hair
- Anosmia: loss of sense of smell, which can be dangerous (e.g., not detecting spoiled food or gas leaks)
Touch
- Decreased sensitivity, especially in lower extremities
- Decreased sensitivity to pain and temperature### Individual Events vs. Cultural Events
- Individual events: events that happen to a person, such as early cancer
- Cultural events: events that happen in a specific historical context or culture, such as the pandemic
Factors Affecting Response to Events
- Preparing for an event: affects how well we integrate and assimilate it
- Understanding the event: influences how we deal with it
- Health (psychological and physical): facilitates response to events
- Personality variables: affect response to events
- Life story: events we have experienced throughout our life and how we have responded to them
- Social support: affects response to events
Model of Identity Factors (Costa and Mcrae, 1980)
- The Big Five personality factors: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, kindness, and responsibility
- Each factor has a high and low score, with corresponding characteristics:
- Neuroticism: high score = insatiable, hostile, etc.; low score = quiet, friendly, etc.
- Extraversion: high score = skilled in relationships, talkative, etc.; low score = silent, quiet, etc.
- Openness to experience: high score = imaginative, likes art, etc.; low score = realistic, not very creative, etc.
- Kindness: high score = seeks acceptance, collaborator, etc.; low score = opposition to others, cruel, etc.
- Responsibility: high score = worker, ambitious, etc.; low score = irresponsible, disorganized, etc.
Criticisms of the Model
- Personality characteristics do not remain stable, and answers to tests can vary depending on the time in life
- The model may not be applicable to all populations, as it was based on data from heterosexual cis men
Model of Normative Crises (Erikson, 1950)
- Personality development occurs as a consequence of social and emotional changes experienced at certain ages
- The model proposes eight stages of development, with each stage building on the previous one
- Overcoming each crisis successfully generates a virtue
- The balance between positive and negative values is essential
Criticisms of the Model
- Heteronormativity: the model only considered heterosexual cis men and did not account for other identities
- The model focuses on male development and does not consider identity development in adulthood
Social Relationships
- Couple: most older people still have their first partner, and satisfaction with the couple increases with age
- Types of relationships:
- Intimacy (capital I): ability to bond and maintain emotional relationships
- intimacy (lowercase i): sporadic, casual relationships
- Privacy: little to no privacy in older age
- Factors affecting relationships:
- Age: influences satisfaction with relationships
- Health: affects relationships
- Income: financial dependence on the partner affects relationships
- Social activities: involvement in social activities outside of the relationship affects relationships
- Rediscovery: rekindling relationships in older age
Grief
- Grief is a process that occurs in response to any loss, not just death
- Different phases of grief:
- Confusion/Ignorance
- Nostalgia/Seeking the lost figure
- Disorganization/Despair
- Reorganization/Recovery
- Tasks to be carried out in the grieving process:
- Accept the reality of death
- Feel the pain of loss
- Adapt to the new life
- Regain the ability to love
Children and Grandchildren
- The majority of older people are parents (80%)
- Children begin to take responsibility for the well-being of older people
- Grandparents play a role in providing care, wisdom, and companionship
- Types of grandparents:
- Caregivers
- Judges
- Source of family wisdom
- Companions
- Indifferent
- Permissive
Friendships
- Friendships are important in older age
- Frequency of contact and joint activities affect relationship satisfaction
- Age and intermediate generation (parents) influence relationships with grandparents
Sexual and Gender Adjustment
- Sexuality is a central aspect of human life that is present throughout life
- Sexuality is linked to the political and social context
- Common errors and myths about sexuality in older age:
- Reducing sexuality to genitality
- Focusing only on intercourse
- Considering erection as a symbol of power and prestige
- Believing that older people do not have sexuality
- Believing that older people are not sexually attractive
- Believing that older people have no physiological ability to have sex
Cognitive Development
- Types of intelligence:
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
- Classic aging model (Botwinick, 1967)
- Bifactorial theory (Catell, 1963; Horn, 1968)
- Seattle longitudinal study (Schaie, 2005)
- The WAIS is a widely used adult intelligence test
- The classic aging model found that older adults perform worse on non-verbal subtests
- The bifactorial theory proposes two forms of intelligence: fluid and crystallized
- The Seattle longitudinal study found that healthier adults did not experience significant decline until after age 60
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Description
This quiz explores the concept of aging and the field of gerontology, including its multidimensional aspects and WHO's 4-factor model for active ageing.
