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According to Plato, how did he view old age?
What is the branch of science that deals with the knowledge and study of the elderly?
Gerontology
Gerontology is a multidimensional field with a focus on biopsychosocial identity.
True
____________ is a natural biological process that begins at birth and ends at death.
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Match the following branches with their descriptions:
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According to the WHO's 4-factor model, what are the added factors to active ageing?
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According to the WHO, which factors are considered cross-cutting determinants of ageing? (Select all that apply)
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The theory of involution or retrogenesis suggests that people gain skills in the reverse order in which they learned them.
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According to Erikson, the virtue associated with the phase of Autonomy vs Shame is _________.
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Match the following theories of aging with their descriptions:
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Which types of strokes are mentioned in the text?
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Which system experiences a decrease in muscle mass as individuals age?
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Elderly individuals may experience decreased taste buds which can lead to loss of enjoyment in food.
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Presbycusis is the gradual loss of ____ due to age-related deterioration.
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What are some factors that can affect the adjustment to retirement?
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What is one of the factors that may affect how an individual copes with the death of their partner, according to the text?
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What are some feelings associated with normal grief? (Select all that apply)
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True or False: Pathological grief involves accepting the loss and experiencing the emotional response immediately.
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____________ start to take responsibility for the well-being of the elderly.
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Match the following types of grandparents with their descriptions:
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What are some common myths about sexuality in old age highlighted in the text?
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What are some objectives of retirement programs according to the content?
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What are some features of retirement programs as mentioned in the content?
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Old age is often spoken of negatively in society according to the content.
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According to the content, old age is considered as a ____________ constructed reality.
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Match the following personality factors with their descriptions:
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Study Notes
Introduction to Psychogerontology
- Ageing population: a growing concern in modern society
- Brief history of Psychogerontology:
- Plato: viewed old age as a positive stage of life
- Aristotle: saw old age as a disease and a ruin
- Scientific background: development of research and studies using the scientific method
- Francis Bacon: introduced the cross-sectional method
- Quetelet: emphasized the importance of biological and social aspects
- Galton: used the longitudinal method
- Hall: recognized that not all older people are the same
- Bühler: valued old age and the whole developmental process
- Cowdry: consolidated the concept of gerontology with a holistic approach (biological, psychological, and social)
Gerontology: Conceptualization
- Definition: the discipline that studies both the ageing process and the state called old age, as well as the specific conditions of the elderly person
- Key aspects:
- Older person: a person over 65 years old
- Old age: a further stage of life that ends with death
- Ageing: a natural biological process that begins at birth and ends at death
- Primary and secondary ageing factors:
- Primary: uncontrollable factors (e.g., menopause)
- Secondary: controllable factors (e.g., exposure to environmental pollution)
Gerontology: Objectives
- Two main objectives:
- Quantitative: extending life expectancy
- Qualitative: improving the quality of life
- Both objectives are essential and interconnected
Gerontology: Characteristics
- Reflects on the existence of the individual
- Reflects on society
- Multidisciplinary (biological, social, and psychological)
Gerontology: Resources
- International Association of Gerontology and Geriatrics
- Spanish Society of Geriatrics and Gerontology
- Spanish Association of Psychogerontology
Psychogerontology: Definition
- A sub-discipline of psychology concerned with the study of ageing, old age, and the applications of this knowledge to promote the well-being of older people and their carers
Research Designs
- Longitudinal design: studying the same person at different moments
- Advantages: non-causality, intra-individual similarities and differences, evolutionary change
- Limitations: time-consuming, costly, familiarity testing, experimental mortality, cohort effect
- Cross-sectional design: studying different people at the same time
- Advantages: more economical, shorter in time, no loss of participants
- Limitations: no intra-individual change visible, no evolution visible, cohort effect
- Sequential design: studying different generations and ages at different times
- Advantages: no cohort effect
- Limitations: costly, slow, does not solve all disadvantages of the other designs
Ageing Population
- Reasons for ageing population:
- Decrease in mortality rate
- Declining birth rate
- Increased life expectancy
- Consequences of population aging:
- Increased risk of cognitive impairment
- Greater need for social and health care services
- Affects autonomy, independence, and quality of life
- Need to promote "active ageing"
Myths and Realities
- Stereotypes: shared beliefs about the characteristics of a social group
- Function of negative stereotypes about old age:
- Encourage older people to assume stereotypes
- Encourage incapacity and dependency
- Age discrimination (ageism): treating someone unfairly based on their age
Dismantling Stereotypes
- Biomedical model vs. Biopsychosocial model
- Deterioration (pathological) ≠ Decline (natural process)
- Cognitive functioning: decline depends on the type of cognitive function
- Emotion and affect: less emotion and more self-regulation
- Personality: older people remain the same as they are throughout their lives
- Social relationships: decrease due to mortality issues, but stronger relationships remain
Different Ages
- Types of age:
- Chronological: number of years since birth
- Biological: physiological changes (e.g., menopause)
- Psychological: cognitive processes
- Subjective: age one feels oneself to be
- Cultural: social roles related to age
- Functional: level of autonomy
- Old age classification:
- Normal: old age without disease/disability but high risk of disease/disability
- Pathologic: characterized by diseases and disabilities
- Successful/Satisfactory: disability prevention, high physical/cognitive functioning, active participation in social and productive activities
Theories of Ageing
-
Developmental Theories (Piaget, Erikson):
- Piaget: focused on cognitive development in childhood and adolescence
- Erikson: focused on the whole life cycle, including old age
-
Activity Theories (Havighurst):
- Importance of activity in old age
- Research showed that active people were more fulfilled and satisfied
-
Disengagement Theories (Cumming and Henry):
- Passive role in old age
- Reduced social relationships = feelings of contentment
-
Continuity Theories (Atchley):
- Argues for continuing development in old age
- Balance between continuity and internal and external structural changes
-
Selective Optimisation with Compensation (Baltes and Baltes):
- Creating alternative strategies to compensate for deterioration
- Optimisation, selection, compensation, and normalisation### Introduction to Psychogerontology
-
Psychogerontology is the study of the life cycle, with a focus on balance between gains and losses throughout the life stages.
Physical Changes
Brain Ageing
- Decrease in brain size and slowing down of neuronal connections
- Loss of functional capacity, but learning can still continue
- Decrease in neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline, acetylcholine, dopamine)
Physical Appearance
- Skin: less flexible, dry, thin, with freckles and uneven pigmentation
- Hair: becomes whiter, thinner, paler, and may fall out
- Body Posture: decrease in height and weight, leading to problems maintaining an upright position
- Body Fat: redistributed, with decrease in face, feet, and arms, and increase in lower abdomen and face
- Teeth: may fall out
Health Problems
- Arthritis: inflammation in the joints
- Hypertension: high blood pressure
- Deafness: decrease in audition
- Cardiovascular diseases: arrhythmias, heart attacks
- Cancer: more frequent in old age
- Hardening of the arteries: may promote strokes
- Osteoporosis: excessive bone loss
Organs of the Human Body
Cardiovascular System
- Cardiovascular disease and likelihood of stroke increase with age
- Changes in the heart and blood vessels
- Major cause of death in older people: heart disease
Respiratory System
- Respiratory rate remains constant, but respiratory capacity decreases
- Most common respiratory diseases: tuberculosis, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
Bones, Muscles, and Body
- Muscle mass decreases, leading to weakness
- Bone mass is lost, leading to fragility and increased risk of breaks
Gastrointestinal System
- Liver shrinks, leading to jaundice and cirrhosis
- Indigestion and gas are common
Urinary System
- Bladder capacity decreases
- Incontinence is frequent, especially in older women
- Decreased agility to reach the toilet can cause anxiety
Endocrine System
- Decreased hormone secretion
- Organs that produce hormones are controlled by other hormones, leading to a chain reaction of decreased secretion
Immunological System
- Reduced functioning, making older people more likely to get sick
- Exercise and flu vaccines can help
Sensory Changes
Vision
- Presbyopia: near vision gets worse
- Worsening of the retina, leading to difficulties in visual acuity, color perception, and depth perception
- Diseases: cataracts, glaucoma, macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, retinal detachment
Audition
- Presbycusis: gradual loss of hearing due to age-related deterioration
- Tinnitus: ringing or other noises in the ears
- Hearing loss can lead to emotional problems and social isolation
Taste
- Decreased taste buds, leading to weaker teeth and gums
- Decreased enjoyment of food, which can lead to social isolation and malnutrition
Smell
- Larger nose and more nasal hair
- Anosmia: loss of sense of smell, which can be dangerous (e.g., not detecting spoiled food or gas leaks)
Touch
- Decreased sensitivity, especially in lower extremities
- Decreased sensitivity to pain and temperature### Individual Events vs. Cultural Events
- Individual events: events that happen to a person, such as early cancer
- Cultural events: events that happen in a specific historical context or culture, such as the pandemic
Factors Affecting Response to Events
- Preparing for an event: affects how well we integrate and assimilate it
- Understanding the event: influences how we deal with it
- Health (psychological and physical): facilitates response to events
- Personality variables: affect response to events
- Life story: events we have experienced throughout our life and how we have responded to them
- Social support: affects response to events
Model of Identity Factors (Costa and Mcrae, 1980)
- The Big Five personality factors: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, kindness, and responsibility
- Each factor has a high and low score, with corresponding characteristics:
- Neuroticism: high score = insatiable, hostile, etc.; low score = quiet, friendly, etc.
- Extraversion: high score = skilled in relationships, talkative, etc.; low score = silent, quiet, etc.
- Openness to experience: high score = imaginative, likes art, etc.; low score = realistic, not very creative, etc.
- Kindness: high score = seeks acceptance, collaborator, etc.; low score = opposition to others, cruel, etc.
- Responsibility: high score = worker, ambitious, etc.; low score = irresponsible, disorganized, etc.
Criticisms of the Model
- Personality characteristics do not remain stable, and answers to tests can vary depending on the time in life
- The model may not be applicable to all populations, as it was based on data from heterosexual cis men
Model of Normative Crises (Erikson, 1950)
- Personality development occurs as a consequence of social and emotional changes experienced at certain ages
- The model proposes eight stages of development, with each stage building on the previous one
- Overcoming each crisis successfully generates a virtue
- The balance between positive and negative values is essential
Criticisms of the Model
- Heteronormativity: the model only considered heterosexual cis men and did not account for other identities
- The model focuses on male development and does not consider identity development in adulthood
Social Relationships
- Couple: most older people still have their first partner, and satisfaction with the couple increases with age
- Types of relationships:
- Intimacy (capital I): ability to bond and maintain emotional relationships
- intimacy (lowercase i): sporadic, casual relationships
- Privacy: little to no privacy in older age
- Factors affecting relationships:
- Age: influences satisfaction with relationships
- Health: affects relationships
- Income: financial dependence on the partner affects relationships
- Social activities: involvement in social activities outside of the relationship affects relationships
- Rediscovery: rekindling relationships in older age
Grief
- Grief is a process that occurs in response to any loss, not just death
- Different phases of grief:
- Confusion/Ignorance
- Nostalgia/Seeking the lost figure
- Disorganization/Despair
- Reorganization/Recovery
- Tasks to be carried out in the grieving process:
- Accept the reality of death
- Feel the pain of loss
- Adapt to the new life
- Regain the ability to love
Children and Grandchildren
- The majority of older people are parents (80%)
- Children begin to take responsibility for the well-being of older people
- Grandparents play a role in providing care, wisdom, and companionship
- Types of grandparents:
- Caregivers
- Judges
- Source of family wisdom
- Companions
- Indifferent
- Permissive
Friendships
- Friendships are important in older age
- Frequency of contact and joint activities affect relationship satisfaction
- Age and intermediate generation (parents) influence relationships with grandparents
Sexual and Gender Adjustment
- Sexuality is a central aspect of human life that is present throughout life
- Sexuality is linked to the political and social context
- Common errors and myths about sexuality in older age:
- Reducing sexuality to genitality
- Focusing only on intercourse
- Considering erection as a symbol of power and prestige
- Believing that older people do not have sexuality
- Believing that older people are not sexually attractive
- Believing that older people have no physiological ability to have sex
Cognitive Development
- Types of intelligence:
- Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
- Classic aging model (Botwinick, 1967)
- Bifactorial theory (Catell, 1963; Horn, 1968)
- Seattle longitudinal study (Schaie, 2005)
- The WAIS is a widely used adult intelligence test
- The classic aging model found that older adults perform worse on non-verbal subtests
- The bifactorial theory proposes two forms of intelligence: fluid and crystallized
- The Seattle longitudinal study found that healthier adults did not experience significant decline until after age 60
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Description
This quiz explores the concept of aging and the field of gerontology, including its multidimensional aspects and WHO's 4-factor model for active ageing.
