Adolescent Identity Formation & Erikson's Theory

Adolescent Identity Crisis: Erikson's Theoretical Framework

• Development involves progression through 8 psychosocial crises throughout life.
• Establishing a coherent sense of identity is the crisis of Identity versus Identity Diffusion.
• This normative crisis occurs primarily during adolescence in the fifth stage of psychosocial development.
• Interactions with others are key to resolving the identity crisis, where adolescents select aspects of their identity based on others' reactions.
• Identity development is both a social and mental process.
• Adolescent identity results from mutual recognition between the young person and significant others.

Problems in Identity Development

• Problems arise when earlier crises are unresolved or when adolescents lack a moratorium period.

Moratorium

• A period when individuals are free from obligations and responsibilities to experiment.
• Erikson highlighted Identity Diffusion, Identity Foreclosure, and Negative Identity as concerns.

Identity Diffusion

• Involves an incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self.
• Commitment and exploration are low or absent.
• Disruptions occur in the individual's sense of time.
• Characterized by excessive self-consciousness that hinders decision-making.
• Difficulties arise with intimate relationships and concerns over sexuality.
• Identity diffusion is reflected in issues of autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, and achievement.

Identity Foreclosure

• Involves bypassing exploration and experimentation which are needed to establish a healthy sense of identity.
• Individuals prematurely commit to roles and settle on a fixed identity.
• Adopted roles are often based on goals set by parents/guardians.
• Identity foreclosure interrupts the identity development process, limiting the discovery of one's full potential.

Negative Identity

• Adopting a "negative identity" indicates problems because a healthy identity is connected to recognition from important individuals.
• An adolescent adopting a negative identity is recognized, but not in a way that fosters healthy development - e.g., a daughter of a local district attorney getting in trouble with the law.
• Selecting this identity is an attempt to define oneself, and occurs when establishing an acceptable identity is difficult.
• This is likely when failing to receive positive recognition from those important in their lives.

Determining an Adolescent's Identity Status

• Identity status marks the point in the identity development process.
• Individuals in a state of identity achievement are psychologically healthier.
• Those in moratorium show the highest anxiety, conflict with authority, and are less rigid.
• Foreclosed individuals are authoritarian, prejudiced, need social approval, have low autonomy, and are close to their parents.
• Those in identity diffusion have high psychological, behavioral, and interpersonal problems, are withdrawn, engage in antisocial behavior, and have low intimacy.
• Authoritative homes correlate with identity achievement.
• Parental warmth and encouragement are important.
• Identity achievement is associated with agency, confidence, and overcoming obstacles.
• Lack of parental warmth can cause commitment problems.
• Lack of encouragement correlates with a lack of exploration.

The Development of Ethnic Identity

• Ethnic socialization: the process of understanding one's ethnic or racial background.
• Parents attempt to teach their children about their ethnic/racial identity and experiences they may encounter due to their background.
• Ethnic identity development is often triggered by experiencing prejudice, or awareness of under-representation.
• Identity exploration begins in middle adolescence.
• Exploration declines between middle and late adolescence as identity consolidates.
• Adolescents with a strong ethnic identity tend to have better mental health.
• A strong ethnic identity fosters a sense of meaning in life.
• Ethnic pride correlates with higher self-esteem, self-efficacy, better mental health, and academic achievement.
• Contact with peers from the same ethnic group promotes positive feelings about ethnicity.
• Academic achievement for ethnic minority youth is highest when they feel connected, are aware of racism, and believe academic success is important.
• Ethnic focus involves understanding culture, dealing with racism, and societal success.
• Adolescents are encouraged to think positively about their ethnic heritage.
• Having positive attitudes about one's ethnic group is associated with positive attitudes about other ethnic groups.
• Recent immigrants frequently report high levels of academic, familial, social, and economic stress.
• Foreign-born ethnic minority adolescents have more positive feelings about mainstream American ideals compared to those whose families have been in the US longer.
• In the US, foreign-born and first-generation ethnic minority youth often perform better in school, a phenomenon known as the immigrant paradox.

Discrimination and Its Effects

• Social contexts, racial stereotypes, discrimination, and conflicting messages shape identity development.
• Discrimination increases during adolescence, especially during school transitions.
• Discrimination negatively affects mental health across identity markers such as race, gender, and appearance.
• Discrimination can cause depression, poor mental health, conduct problems, substance abuse, poor sleep, and lower academic achievement.
• Experiencing discrimination can cause biological effects, such as changes in DNA and inflammation, linked to faster aging.
• Discrimination by peers has a greater negative impact than discrimination by adults.
• Cross-ethnic friendships and a strong ethnic identity reduce the harmful effects of discrimination.
• Perceived control over academic achievement plays a role.
• Adolescents who feel discriminated against tend to feel less control and increased depression.
• Discrimination may lead to deviant peer groups and risky behaviors.
• Social support from parents, teachers, and friends helps mitigate negative effects of discrimination.

Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity

• It focuses upon:
  • Racial centrality: the importance of race to one's identity, and increases during adolescence.
  • Private regard: how positively one feels about their racial identity, which remains stable but may drop in early high school.
  • Public regard: how others perceive their racial group, which changes by racial group.

Gender Differences in Discrimination

• Black boys face more frequent suspicion and police profiling.
• Black girls experience discrimination in more subtle ways, like having their hair scrutinized and being seen as less desirable.

Effects of Perceived Public Regard

• Adolescents believing society has a low opinion of their racial group experience greater sensitivity to discrimination, worsening mental health.
• Individuals believing society views their race positively perform better academically but feel more distressed when facing discrimination.

Coping with Discrimination

• The best coping strategy combines ethnic pride and resilience, proving discriminatory individuals wrong through hard work.
• Parental socialization matters: emphasizing ethnic has a protective effect, while overemphasizing warnings about racism can be harmful.
• A strong ethnic identity buffers against online discrimination.

Awareness of Institutional Racism

• Adolescents are more aware of systemic racial inequalities as they grow.
• Awareness of institutional racism can be motivating, leading to better academic performance.
• Parents should discuss institutional racism with children of all racial backgrounds.

Notes on Gender-Role Socialization During Adolescence

Gender Stereotypes and Behavior

• Psychological differences between sexes are minimal.
• Society holds strong beliefs about what is "normal" for males and females.
• Psychologists study the consequences of conforming to/deviating from gender stereotypes.

Gender Intensification Hypothesis

• Early adolescence may increase pressure to conform to sex-stereotypic behaviors.
• Cognitive development allows gender roles to be more or less flexible.
• Social pressures can push teenagers toward gender-stereotypic behavior.
• Environmental factors are more influential than hormonal changes in shaping gender-role behavior.

Impact of Gender Equality on Adolescent Well-being

• Countries with higher gender equality report greater life satisfaction for both boys and girls.
• Gender equality is more strongly correlated with adolescent well-being than income equality.

Peer Influence on Gender Roles

• Adolescents tend to befriend peers with similar gender-role attitudes.

• Some peer groups pressure conformity to gender norms.

• Gender-atypical adolescents are at higher risk of victimization and mental health issues.

• Adolescents are more intolerant of gender nonconformity than of diverse sexual orientations.

Gender Nonconformity and Mental Health Risks

• Higher mental health issues among LGBTQ+ youth may relate to gender-role nonconformity.
• LGBTQ+ youth adhering to gender norms are less likely to face harassment.

Variability in Gender Stereotype Pressure

• Some studies do not find increased gender-role pressures during adolescence.
• Differences in findings may relate to behaviors, development and cultural context.

Changing Views on Gender Equality

• Support for gender equality in the workplace has increased.
• Support for gender equality in the family has since declined.

Notes on Masculinity and Femininity

Variability in Masculinity and Femininity

• Individuals vary in degrees of masculinity and femininity.
• Gender identity is generally stable over time.

Gender Stereotype Expectations and Psychological Impact

• Gender intensification during adolescence: boys and girls who are highly masculine/feminine tend to feel more accepted and have better self-esteem.
• Costs of being gender-atypical are greater for boys.
• Boys tend to reduce feminine traits, whereas girls generally don't reduce masculine traits.
• Society more readily accepts girls adopting masculine traits vs boys adopting feminine traits.

Consequences of Gender Nonconformity

• Boys deviating from masculinity face lower self-esteem, social judgment as deviant.
• They also face a higher risk of bullying.

Masculine boys experience

• Higher self-acceptance.
• A greater likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors.
• Can be due to societal expectations of masculinity or related environment.

Feminine girls face

• An Increased risk for psychological issues like disordered eating.
• Lower academic achievement can occur if they prioritize sexual appeal.

Effects of Sexualization on Girls

• Girls internalizing sexualized ideals spend more time on appearance.
• Highly sexualized social media images can lead to negative peer perceptions, being seen as those less competent and less physically and socially attractive

Gender-Role Socialization Differences Between Boys and Girls

• Boys suffer greater self-image issues when deviating from gender norms.
• Boys face strong socialization pressures from childhood to reject femininity.
• Girls can exhibit some masculine traits without severe social penalties.
• Boys showing any femininity are judged deviant.
• Girls experience pressure to be feminine but are not forced to abandon masculine interests.

Explore Erikson's theory on adolescent identity development, focusing on identity vs. identity diffusion. Analyze the interplay between social recognition and personal identity. Investigate the impact of unresolved psychosocial crises and discrimination on identity formation.