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Questions and Answers

Which of the following adhesion molecules is primarily responsible for the migration of lymphocytes to the gut and gut-associated lymphoid tissues?

  • MAC-1
  • α4β7 (correct)
  • VLA-4
  • LFA-1

    • Which of the following is NOT a ligand for L-selectin?

  • Sialyl-Lewis X on glycoproteins expressed on neutrophils
  • Sialyl-Lewis X on glycoproteins expressed on T lymphocytes
  • Sialyl-Lewis X on glycoproteins expressed on monocytes
  • Sialyl-Lewis X on glycoproteins expressed on endothelium (correct)

    • Which of the following adhesion molecules is expressed on activated endothelium and plays a critical role in the adhesion of neutrophils, monocytes, and T lymphocytes?

  • L-selectin
  • E-selectin
  • P-selectin
  • All of the above (correct)

    • Which of the following adhesion molecules is primarily responsible for the adhesion of monocytes and dendritic cells to activated endothelium?

    <p>MAC-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements accurately describes the expression of integrins on leukocytes?

    <p>Most integrins are expressed on all leukocytes, with only a few having specialized expression patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following adhesion molecules is NOT expressed on activated endothelium?

    <p>L-selectin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following adhesion molecules is primarily responsible for the adhesion of T lymphocytes to activated endothelium?

    <p>VLA-4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following adhesion molecules plays a role in the extravasation of leukocytes from the bloodstream into tissues?

    <p>Both selectins and integrins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do activated neutrophils play in the immune response?

    <p>They bind to microbes and signal macrophages for further actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a mechanism by which neutrophils alter the concentration of integrins?

    <p>Directly interacting with cytokines in the bloodstream.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to particles that are wrapped by neutrophil membranes?

    <p>They undergo intracellular degradation or processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the significance of neutrophil signaling to macrophages?

    <p>It helps coordinate a faster and more effective immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of particles can neutrophils engulf and internalize?

    <p>All types of foreign materials including debris and microbes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do neutrophils engage with debris or foreign particles?

    <p>Through the process of phagocytosis and membrane wrapping.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the predominant type of cell that dominates during the first 6 to 24 hours of acute vascular damage?

    <p>Neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological condition describes red blood cells stuck in small vessels resulting in localized swelling?

    <p>Stasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process do red blood cells undergo 24 to 48 hours after acute injury?

    <p>Apoptosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What visible sign is associated with localized redness due to vascular congestion?

    <p>Erythema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cellular component primarily replaces red blood cells after they undergo apoptosis?

    <p>Monocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during vascular congestion that contributes to the phenomenon of 'swelling'?

    <p>Increased blood viscosity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When does the process of leukocyte margination occur in relation to acute vascular injury?

    <p>1 to 2 hours after</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which phase do neutrophils begin to adhere to the vascular endothelium?

    <p>From 24 to 48 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of processes that give rise to LTB or LTC?

    <p>Irreversible damage to tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes LTB?

    <p>Produced by neuroinflammatory responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of mechanisms may develop when inflammation is abnormally charged?

    <p>Pathogenic responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do macrophages play in the context of neuroinflammation?

    <p>They are a source of chemotactic agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is primarily responsible for the release of lysosomal enzymes in inflammation?

    <p>Excessive ROS generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can trigger the aggregation and adhesion of antigens during inflammation?

    <p>Neuropathic factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly reflects the outcome of neuroinflammatory responses?

    <p>They lead to the generation of harmful byproducts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do elevated levels of ROS commonly contribute to?

    <p>Increased neuroinflammatory processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of histamine in the context of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation?

    <p>To increase the permeability of capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which enzyme is primarily involved in the production of superoxide during the activation of mast cells?

    <p>Phagocyte oxidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Under what conditions is hydrogen peroxide generated in relation to mast cells and signaling?

    <p>Upon activation by neurogenic stimuli and allergens binding to IgE</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do Fc receptors play in the context of mast cell activation?

    <p>They mediate binding of allergens to activation pathways</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do reactive oxygen species contribute to tissue damage?

    <p>By damaging proteins, DNA, and lipid membranes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of complement products C5a and C3a on mast cell activity?

    <p>They promote mast cell activation and degranulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about enzyme activities in mast cells is true?

    <p>The myeloperoxidase enzyme is involved in generating reactive oxygen species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of rapid assembly in the context of phagocyte oxidase?

    <p>It allows for a quick response in ROS generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrophils are responsible for recognizing and responding to microbial invasion.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Tissue cells can recognize and respond to microbial invasion without the help of neutrophils.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Proteins are the primary molecules responsible for recognizing and responding to microbial invasion.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrophils can engulf and internalize foreign particles through a process called phagocytosis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrophils are not capable of recognizing foreign particles in the absence of complement proteins.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary function of neutrophils is to produce antibodies against invading pathogens.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrophils are the primary cells responsible for the resolution of inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Inflammation is always a beneficial response to tissue damage or infection.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The principal cells of inflammation are erythrocytes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytokines are the primary mediators of acute inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Macrophages are the primary cellular infiltrate in acute inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chronic inflammation is typically self-limited.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pyogenic bacteria are a common cause of chronic inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Leukocytes express receptors for the Fc portion of antibodies.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Tissue injury is usually extensive in acute inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Scarring is a common outcome of acute inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytokines are involved in the production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Local and systemic signs of inflammation are usually mild in chronic inflammation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neutrophils have a life span in tissues of approximately 1–2 years.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Macrophages are primarily derived from hematopoietic stem cells found in the yolk sac or fetal liver during early development.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The response of neutrophils to activating stimuli is typically slower and dependent on new gene transcription.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytokine production is a major response feature of neutrophils.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Degranulation is a prominent response in macrophages when activated.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species are less prominently induced in neutrophils compared to macrophages.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Both neutrophils and macrophages have a significant capacity for NET formation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nitric oxide is typically present at low levels or none in neutrophils.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Secretion of lysosomal enzymes is more prominent in macrophages than in neutrophils.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Macrophages rely on rapid, short-lived responses similar to neutrophils when activated.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    H$_2$O can be converted to highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (OH) in the presence of metals such as Al.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Microbicidal reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitrogen oxides are essential for killing ingested microbes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Inducible NO synthase (iNOS) is only produced during the resting state of phagocytes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phagocytes use endosomes to capture and ingest microbial particles.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mannose receptors are examples of mediators that phagocytes utilize to bind to microbes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nitric oxide (NO) released during phagocytosis can contribute to inhibiting microbial growth.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are exclusively produced in the presence of nitrogen oxides.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Granule contents may be released into extracellular tissues during the process of phagocytosis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    P-selectin is a type of integrin involved in stable adhesion of leukocytes.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fibrin and fibronectin are components of the extracellular matrix that assist in leukocyte migration.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chemokines play a critical role in integrating the low-affinity state of integrins to a high-affinity state in leukocytes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Leukocyte rolling is primarily mediated by the interaction of integrins with endothelial cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    PECAM-1 is also known as CD31 and plays a role in the migration of leukocytes through the endothelium.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The activation of integrins in leukocytes occurs independently of cytokines like TNF and IL-1.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytokines and chemokines are interchangeable terms in the context of leukocyte activation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Microbial presence triggers a defensive response from macrophages through chemokines and integrins.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of chronic inflammation compared to acute inflammation?

    <p>Chronic inflammation is associated with a longer duration and more tissue destruction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of sensors in the context of inflammation?

    <p>Sensors recognize and respond to tissue damage, leading to the activation of immune cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the vascular and cellular reactions in inflammation?

    <p>Vascular reactions involve changes in blood vessels, while cellular reactions involve the activation of immune cells.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of chemical mediators in inflammation?

    <p>Chemical mediators elicit vascular and cellular reactions that serve to eliminate the offending agent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of de novo synthesis in the context of acute and chronic inflammation?

    <p>De novo synthesis can superimpose acute inflammation on a background of chronic inflammation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of cytokines in the context of inflammation?

    <p>Cytokines are chemical mediators that coordinate the immune response and eliminate the offending agent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of uncontrolled inflammation?

    <p>Uncontrolled inflammation can lead to tissue destruction and contribute to disease progression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the distinction between acute and chronic inflammation?

    <p>Acute inflammation is self-limited, while chronic inflammation is associated with a longer duration and more tissue destruction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What specific adhesion molecule plays a critical role in the migration of T lymphocytes to gut and gut-associated lymphoid tissues?

    <p>α4β7</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adhesion molecule is primarily responsible for the adhesion of neutrophils, monocytes, and T lymphocytes to activated endothelium?

    <p>E-selectin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ligand for LFA-1 integrin on activated endothelium?

    <p>ICAM-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adhesion molecule is expressed on monocytes and dendritic cells and plays a role in their adhesion to activated endothelium?

    <p>MAC-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary ligand for VLA-4 integrin on T lymphocytes?

    <p>VCAM-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which adhesion molecule is responsible for the adhesion of neutrophils and monocytes to activated endothelium?

    <p>P-selectin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ligand for α4β7 integrin on T lymphocytes and monocytes?

    <p>MAdCAM-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which family of adhesion molecules is responsible for the rolling of leukocytes on endothelium?

    <p>Selectin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which cell-derived mediators acquire the ability to destroy ingested microbes and dead cells?

    <p>Cell-derived mediators acquire the ability to destroy ingested microbes and dead cells through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), nitric oxide, enzymes, and other mechanisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of lysosomal enzymes in the context of inflammation?

    <p>Lysosomal enzymes are primarily responsible for the release of degradative enzymes that contribute to tissue damage and inflammation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do neutrophils engage with debris or foreign particles?

    <p>Neutrophils engage with debris or foreign particles through a process called phagocytosis, which involves the engulfment and internalization of foreign particles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in inflammation?

    <p>Elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to tissue damage and inflammation by oxidizing cellular components and activating signaling pathways.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of histamine in the context of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation?

    <p>The primary function of histamine is to trigger the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mast cells, contributing to inflammation and tissue damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Fc receptors in the context of mast cell activation?

    <p>Fc receptors play a crucial role in the activation of mast cells by recognizing and binding to IgE antibodies, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory mediators.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain how the lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes contribute to the inflammatory response, focusing on their roles in removing exudate and mediating the movement of leukocytes.

    <p>Lymphatic vessels play a crucial role in draining excess fluid and cellular debris, known as exudate, from the site of inflammation. This drainage helps to reduce swelling and remove harmful substances. Lymph nodes, strategically positioned along lymphatic vessels, act as filters, trapping antigens and debris carried by the lymphatic fluid. They also house immune cells, such as lymphocytes, which are activated by these antigens, leading to an immune response that helps to fight off infection and promote tissue repair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the mechanisms by which adhesion molecules facilitate the recruitment of leukocytes to the site of inflammation. Include specific examples of adhesion molecules and their functions.

    <p>Adhesion molecules, expressed on both leukocytes and endothelial cells, play a critical role in leukocyte recruitment. Selectins, like L-selectin, mediate the initial weak interactions between leukocytes and the endothelium, allowing them to slow down and roll along the vessel wall. Integrins, such as LFA-1, bind to their ligands on the endothelium, facilitating firm adhesion and halting the leukocyte's movement. Finally, immunoglobulin superfamily molecules, like ICAM-1, strengthen the adhesion of leukocytes to the endothelium, allowing them to migrate through the vessel wall and into the inflamed tissue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the role of neutrophils in the early stages of acute inflammation, including their functions in phagocytosis, degranulation, and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

    <p>Neutrophils are the first responders to acute inflammation, arriving at the site within hours. Their primary function is to combat invading pathogens and remove cellular debris. Neutrophils use phagocytosis to engulf and destroy bacteria and other foreign particles. They also release cytotoxic substances from their granules, a process called degranulation, which helps to kill pathogens and break down tissue. Neutrophils also produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are highly reactive molecules that can damage pathogens and contribute to tissue damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Discuss the mechanisms by which mast cells contribute to inflammation, including the release of histamine and other mediators, the activation of complement, and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

    <p>Mast cells, located in tissues, play a crucial role in initiating and amplifying the inflammatory response. When activated by various stimuli, such as allergens or pathogens, they release histamine, a potent vasodilator and bronchoconstrictor, contributing to the characteristic symptoms of inflammation. Mast cells also release other inflammatory mediators, such as leukotrienes and prostaglandins, which further promote inflammation. They activate the complement system, leading to the generation of anaphylatoxins (C3a and C5a) that attract leukocytes and enhance vascular permeability. Additionally, mast cells produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can damage pathogens and contribute to tissue damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the process of leukocyte margination and explain how it facilitates the extravasation of leukocytes into the inflamed tissue.

    <p>Leukocyte margination refers to the process where leukocytes, primarily neutrophils, slow down and adhere to the endothelium lining the blood vessels at the site of inflammation. This process is facilitated by adhesion molecules, specifically selectins and integrins, which mediate the initial weak interactions and subsequent firm adhesion, respectively. As leukocytes adhere, they begin to migrate through the endothelial cell junctions, a process known as diapedesis, and enter the inflamed tissue. This movement is driven by chemoattractant molecules, such as chemokines and complement products, that guide the leukocytes towards the site of injury or infection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the role of macrophages in the resolution of inflammation, including their functions in phagocytosis, antigen presentation, and the release of cytokines.

    <p>Macrophages, arriving at the site of inflammation after neutrophils, play a crucial role in resolving the inflammatory response. They phagocytose cellular debris, pathogens, and dead neutrophils, clearing the site of inflammation. Macrophages also act as antigen-presenting cells, processing and presenting antigens to T lymphocytes, initiating an adaptive immune response. Additionally, macrophages release various cytokines, including IL-10 and TGF-β, that suppress inflammation and promote tissue repair. By clearing debris, activating adaptive immunity, and promoting healing, macrophages contribute to the resolution of inflammation and the restoration of tissue homeostasis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the process by which activated neutrophils engulf and internalize foreign particles, highlighting the key steps involved.

    <p>Activated neutrophils, upon recognizing foreign particles, undergo a series of steps to internalize them:</p> <ol> <li> <strong>Adhesion:</strong> The neutrophil adheres to the foreign particle through various receptors, such as Fc receptors and complement receptors.</li> <li> <strong>Phagocytosis:</strong> The neutrophil's plasma membrane extends pseudopods that engulf the particle, forming a phagosome.</li> <li> <strong>Phagosome-Lysosome Fusion:</strong> The phagosome fuses with lysosomes, which contain various enzymes and reactive oxygen species.</li> <li> <strong>Particle Degradation:</strong> The lysosomal enzymes and reactive oxygen species degrade the foreign particle, effectively neutralizing its threat.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain how the interaction between activated neutrophils and macrophages contributes to the overall immune response.

    <p>Activated neutrophils and macrophages engage in a complex interplay that is essential for a coordinated immune response. Neutrophils, the first responders to inflammation, can signal macrophages through various mechanisms, such as the release of chemokines and cytokines. These signals activate macrophages, enhancing their phagocytic capacity and promoting the release of inflammatory mediators. The presence of neutrophils also guides macrophages towards the site of inflammation, facilitating their ability to engulf pathogens and cellular debris, ultimately contributing to the resolution of the inflammatory response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the inflammatory response, highlighting their beneficial and detrimental effects.

    <p>Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play a dual role in inflammation. On the one hand, ROS contribute to the killing of pathogens by neutrophils and macrophages. They also act as signaling molecules, triggering the release of inflammatory mediators. However, excessive ROS production can lead to tissue damage and contribute to chronic inflammatory conditions. This damage arises from the oxidative stress induced by ROS, which can disrupt cellular function and damage DNA.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the concept of "phagocytosis" in the context of the immune response and its significance in eliminating foreign particles.

    <p>Phagocytosis is a fundamental process in the immune system where specialized cells, primarily neutrophils and macrophages, engulf and internalize foreign particles, such as bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris. This process involves the recognition of the particle through surface receptors, followed by the extension of pseudopods that surround the particle, forming a phagosome. The phagosome then fuses with lysosomes, releasing enzymes and reactive oxygen species that degrade the particle, eliminating it from the body. This process is crucial for controlling infections and clearing cellular debris, ensuring a proper immune response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Discuss the significance of "adhesion molecules" in the context of leukocyte migration during inflammation.

    <p>Adhesion molecules play a critical role in leukocyte migration during inflammation, enabling leukocytes to exit the bloodstream and reach the site of injury or infection. These molecules are expressed on both leukocytes and endothelial cells lining blood vessels. During inflammation, changes in the expression and activation of adhesion molecules facilitate a multistep process:</p> <ol> <li> <strong>Rolling:</strong> Selectins, expressed on both leukocytes and endothelial cells, mediate initial weak interactions, causing leukocytes to roll along the vessel wall.</li> <li> <strong>Adhesion:</strong> Integrins, expressed on leukocytes, bind to their ligands on endothelial cells, leading to firm adhesion of leukocytes to the vessel wall.</li> <li> <strong>Diapedesis:</strong> Leukocytes then migrate through the endothelial junctions and into the surrounding tissue, where they can fight infection or participate in tissue repair.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the process by which activated neutrophils trigger the release of lysosomal enzymes during inflammation, and explain the consequences of this release.

    <p>Activated neutrophils, upon encountering pathogens or cellular debris, trigger a cascade of events leading to the release of lysosomal enzymes. This release is primarily mediated by the fusion of lysosomes with phagosomes, forming phagolysosomes. The lysosomes contain a wide array of enzymes, such as proteases, hydrolases, and myeloperoxidase, which are capable of degrading pathogens and cellular debris. However, the release of lysosomal enzymes can also have detrimental effects on surrounding tissues. Excessive release can contribute to tissue damage, leading to inflammation and potential harm to nearby healthy cells. This delicate balance between the benefits and drawbacks of lysosomal enzyme release is critical for effective pathogen elimination and minimizing collateral damage during inflammation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When pathogens invade the body, _______________ microbes are activated to fight the infection.

    <p>neutrophilic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The production of mediators requires the _______________ of blood vessels.

    <p>invasion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rapid changes in _______________ vessel walls are essential for the production of mediators.

    <p>blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The exodus of cells from the _______________ into the surrounding tissue is crucial for the inflammatory response.

    <p>bloodstream</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Coordinated changes in _______________ vessels and the secretion of mediators are necessary for the inflammatory response.

    <p>blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______________ of blood vessels is critical for the migration of leukocytes to the site of inflammation.

    <p>activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The production of mediators is dependent on the _______________ of blood vessels and the secretion of pro-inflammatory molecules.

    <p>activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The inflammatory response involves the _______________ of leukocytes from the bloodstream into the surrounding tissue.

    <p>extravasation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ activation by chemokines plays a critical role in leukocyte migration.

    <p>integrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ are a type of adhesion molecule that bind to specific ligands on leukocytes.

    <p>Selectins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of leukocyte movement through the endothelium is called ______.

    <p>migration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ state of integrins refers to their low affinity for their ligands.

    <p>low-affinity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ of integrins enhances their binding to ligands on the endothelium.

    <p>activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytokines such as TNF and IL-1 play a role in the ______ of the endothelium.

    <p>activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ are chemical messengers that attract leukocytes to the site of inflammation.

    <p>Chemokines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ______ matrix provides a scaffold for leukocyte migration.

    <p>extracellular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of engulfing foreign particles through the formation of a _______________ is shown in Fig.

    <p>phagocytic vacuole</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______________ is responsible for killing and degrading ingested microbes.

    <p>phagolysosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cytoplasmic _______________ is involved in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

    <p>oxidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______________ is an enzyme involved in the production of superoxide during the activation of phagocytes.

    <p>MPO</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary function of _______________ in phagocytes is to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS).

    <p>NADPH oxidase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______________ pathway is involved in the production of nitric oxide (NO) in phagocytes.

    <p>iNOS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______________ is formed when the phagosome fuses with a lysosome.

    <p>phagolysosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species (ROS) contribute to _______________ during inflammation.

    <p>tissue damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary function of _______________ in phagocytes is to recognize and engulf foreign particles.

    <p>phagocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The formation of _______________ around foreign particles is the first step in phagocytosis.

    <p>phagosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Microbes and acid ______________ the cleanup of debris from necrotic cells.

    <p>aid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are derived from __________________ acid.

    <p>arachidonic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Heavy issues are normally protected from ROS-mediated damage by the action of __________________ enzymes.

    <p>antioxidant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The enzyme __________________ degrades superoxide, and catalase degrades hydrogen peroxide.

    <p>superoxide dismutase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Arachidonic acid is converted by the enzyme __________________ into prostaglandins and by lipoxygenase into leukotrienes.

    <p>cyclooxygenase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    These chemicals have diverse actions on blood vessels and __________________ cells.

    <p>leukocyte</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nitric oxide (NO) is made mostly in __________________ and following stimulation of macrophages.

    <p>macrophages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can cause __________________ damage to tissues.

    <p>oxidative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The major killing mechanisms of ______ and macrophages are produced locally by the sentinel cells.

    <p>neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are classified as ______ that help in the destruction of pathogens.

    <p>reactive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mediators including chemokines and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) help to regulate mediatory actions such as those of ______ receptors.

    <p>mannose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    These mediators are crucial for destroying ______ and dead cells.

    <p>engaged</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nitric oxide and enzymes are part of the major classes of ______ involved in the immune response.

    <p>mediators</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mediators produced in response to infection contribute to a system of checks and balances that ______ immune actions.

    <p>regulates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular structures with their functions:

    <p>Plasma membranes = Wrap around particles and internalize them Cytoplasm = Engulf and internalize foreign particles Lysosomes = Store and release digestive enzymes Nucleus = Control cell growth and division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following immune cells with their primary functions:

    <p>Macrophages = Present antigens to T-cells Neutrophils = Phagocytose and eliminate foreign particles Dendritic cells = Recognize and respond to microbial invasion T-lymphocytes = Produce antibodies against pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their outcomes:

    <p>Phagocytosis = Internalization of foreign particles Adhesion = Binding of cells to each other or surfaces Activation = Increased cellular responsiveness Signaling = Transmission of molecular signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following molecules with their functions:

    <p>Integrins = Mediate cell adhesion and migration L-selectin = Facilitate leukocyte rolling on endothelium Cytokines = Regulate immune cell function and migration Histamine = Trigger allergic responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular responses with their triggers:

    <p>Inflammation = Tissue damage or microbial invasion Activation = Binding of ligands to receptors Phagocytosis = Recognition of foreign particles Apoptosis = DNA damage or cellular stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular structures with their components:

    <p>Lysosomes = Digestive enzymes and acidic pH Nucleus = DNA and histone proteins Mitochondria = Energy-producing enzymes Golgi apparatus = Protein modification and packaging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following molecules with their functions in inflammation:

    <p>Prostaglandins = Stimulate production of ROS Leukotrienes = Regulate inflammation response Arachidonic acid = Involved in eicosanoid production Hydrogen peroxide = Antioxidant function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cell types with their primary function in the context of inflammation:

    <p>Kupffer cells = Phagocytosis of bacteria and other foreign particles in the liver Microglia = Phagocytosis of debris and pathogens in the central nervous system Alveolar macrophages = Phagocytosis of bacteria and other foreign particles in the lungs Mast cells = Release of histamine and other inflammatory mediators</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their roles in ROS scavenging:

    <p>Catalase = Breaks down hydrogen peroxide Superoxide dismutase = Converts superoxide into oxygen Peroxidase = Neutralizes hydrogen peroxide Lipooxygenase = Involved in eicosanoid production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their primary role in vascular reactions during inflammation:

    <p>Vasodilation = Increased blood flow to the affected area Increased vascular permeability = Leakage of plasma and cells into the tissues Leukocyte margination = Adhesion of leukocytes to the endothelium Leukocyte emigration = Migration of leukocytes from the blood into the tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following molecules with their primary function in leukocyte adhesion and migration:

    <p>Selectins = Mediate initial rolling of leukocytes on the endothelium Integrins = Mediate firm adhesion of leukocytes to the endothelium Chemokines = Guide leukocyte migration towards the site of inflammation Immunoglobulins = Bind to antigens and activate complement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cell types with their roles in inflammation:

    <p>Macrophages = Phagocytose foreign particles Neutrophils = Release ROS to combat pathogens T lymphocytes = Regulate immune response Dendritic cells = Activate immune response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their primary role in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during inflammation:

    <p>NADPH oxidase = Generates superoxide radical Myeloperoxidase = Converts hydrogen peroxide to hypochlorous acid Catalase = Degrades hydrogen peroxide Superoxide dismutase = Converts superoxide radical to hydrogen peroxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following molecules with their effects on inflammation:

    <p>Nitric oxide (NO) = Has anti-inflammatory effects Reactive oxygen species (ROS) = Contributes to tissue damage Cytokines = Regulate inflammation response Histamine = Stimulates ROS production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following inflammatory mediators with their primary effects:

    <p>Histamine = Vasodilation and increased vascular permeability Prostaglandins = Pain and fever Leukotrienes = Chemotaxis and vasoconstriction Cytokines = Activation of other cells and regulation of inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their descriptions:

    <p>Phagocytosis = Engulfment of foreign particles by neutrophils Apoptosis = Programmed cell death Extravasation = Leukocyte migration from bloodstream to tissues Margination = Leukocyte adhesion to endothelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cell types with their primary role in the resolution of inflammation:

    <p>Macrophages = Phagocytosis of debris and apoptotic cells Fibroblasts = Production of collagen and other extracellular matrix components Lymphocytes = Adaptive immune response Neutrophils = Early responders to inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following molecules with their roles in eicosanoid production:

    <p>Arachidonic acid = Precursor to eicosanoids Cyclooxygenase = Converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandins Lipooxygenase = Converts arachidonic acid to leukotrienes Prostacyclin = Regulates inflammation response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their primary role in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammation:

    <p>Persistent infection = Continuous stimulation of the immune system Autoimmunity = Immune response against self-antigens Granulomatous inflammation = Formation of granulomas, which are aggregates of macrophages and lymphocytes Fibrosis = Excessive deposition of extracellular matrix</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following enzymes with their roles in ROS degradation:

    <p>Peroxidase = Breaks down hydrogen peroxide Superoxide dismutase = Converts superoxide into oxygen Catalase = Neutralizes hydrogen peroxide Glutathione peroxidase = Scavenges ROS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Acute inflammation = Rapid onset and short duration Chronic inflammation = Persistent and prolonged Exudate = Fluid rich in protein and cells Transudate = Fluid low in protein and cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cell types with their roles in ROS production:

    <p>Neutrophils = Produce ROS through NADPH oxidase Macrophages = Produce ROS through mitochondrial metabolism T lymphocytes = Produce ROS through Fenton reaction Dendritic cells = Produce ROS through peroxidase activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following immune cells with their primary function:

    <p>Dendritic cells = Recognize microbes and dead cells Mast cells = Release histamine and inflammatory mediators Neutrophils = Engulf and internalize foreign particles Macrophages = Deilver leukocytes and plasma proteins into tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Acute inflammation = Rapid tissue response to harmful stimuli Cytokines = Molecules that mediate immune responses Extravasation = Process of leukocytes moving from blood to tissues Phagocytosis = Process by which cells engulf and internalize particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components with their roles in inflammation:

    <p>Leukocytes = White blood cells involved in immune response Antigens = Substances that provoke an immune response Plasma proteins = Member of the complement system involved in inflammation Vascular reactions = Changes in blood flow and vessel permeability during inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of cells with their specific locations:

    <p>Dendritic cells = Found in connective tissues and organs Mast cells = Located near blood vessels Macrophages = Present in various tissues throughout the body Neutrophils = Circulate in the bloodstream before migrating to tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cytokines with their roles:

    <p>Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF) = Promotes inflammation and immune response Interleukin-1 (IL-1) = Activates lymphocytes and mediates fever Interleukin-6 (IL-6) = Stimulates acute phase protein production Transforming Growth Factor (TGF) = Regulates inflammation and tissue repair</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of inflammation with their characteristics:

    <p>Acute inflammation = Characterized by rapid onset and short duration Chronic inflammation = Persistent inflammation lasting weeks to years Localized inflammation = Restricted to a specific area of the body Systemic inflammation = Affects the entire body or multiple systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components with the mechanism they employ:

    <p>Integrins = Facilitate adhesion of leukocytes to endothelium Selectins = Mediate the initial rolling of leukocytes on blood vessels Chemokines = Attract leukocytes to the site of inflammation Complement proteins = Enhance phagocytosis and recruit immune cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following processes with their effects during acute vascular damage:

    <p>Engorgement of small vessels = Localized swelling Increased concentration of inflammation = Increased blood flow Apoptosis of red blood cells = Replacement by leukocytes Vascular congestion = Localized redness (erythema)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following immune responses with their triggers:

    <p>Phagocytosis = Triggered by recognition of foreign particles Degranulation = Stimulated by the recognition of allergens or pathogens Cytokine release = Induced by infections or tissue injury Antigen presentation = Required to activate T cells and initiate adaptive immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following timeframes with the corresponding cellular responses during vascular damage:

    <p>0 to 6 hours = Amount of red blood cells in circulation decreases 6 to 24 hours = Neutrophils begin to adhere to the endothelium 24 to 48 hours = Apoptosis of red blood cells occurs After 48 hours = Replacement with macrophages and other leukocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their related descriptions in the context of inflammation:

    <p>Stasis = Condition of red blood cells stuck in small vessels Margination = Movement of leukocytes towards the vessel walls Erythema = Visible sign of localized redness Vascular congestion = Swelling due to increased blood flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following cellular components with their roles in acute inflammation:

    <p>Neutrophils = First responders to acute injury Monocytes = Precursor to macrophages in tissues Red blood cells = Involved in oxygen transport and can cause stasis Leukocytes = General term for white blood cells involved in response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of vascular effects with their outcomes during injury:

    <p>Increased blood flow = Enhanced delivery of immune cells Increased vascular permeability = Swelling and fluid leakage into tissues Adhesion of leukocytes = Margination against endothelial cells Formation of new vessels = Resolution of inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following leukocyte behaviors with their corresponding actions during inflammation:

    <p>Adherence = Leukocytes cling to vascular endothelium Migration = Movement of leukocytes through vessel walls Phagocytosis = Engulfing of pathogens or debris Degranulation = Release of mediators to combat pathogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following inflammatory responses with their triggers:

    <p>Localized redness (erythema) = Increased blood flow and stagnation Vascular congestion = Accumulation of blood in small vessels Swelling (edema) = Leakage of fluid due to increased permeability White blood cell infiltration = Response to tissue damage and infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following phases of leukocyte involvement with their characteristics:

    <p>First phase = Neutrophils dominate the response Second phase = Monocytes arrive as they differentiate into macrophages Chronic phase = Prolonged inflammation with potential tissue remodeling Resolution phase = Return to normal tissue function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Acute Vascular Damage

    • Acute vascular damage leads to reduced blood flow, heightened inflammation, and an increase in leukocyte concentration within 6 to 24 hours.
    • Small blood vessels experience swelling, resulting in increased blood viscosity and the accumulation of red blood cells.
    • This condition leads to a process known as stasis, marked by changes in the motion of blood and leukocytes, manifesting as localized redness (erythema) in affected areas.

    Leukocyte Migration

    • The migration of leukocytes can be divided into vascular congestion and external localized redness.
    • Various types of leukocytes, including neutrophils and monocytes, adhere to the endothelium during the inflammatory process.
    • Specific adhesion molecules, such as selectins and integrins, are crucial for leukocyte adherence and migration toward sites of inflammation.

    Adhesion Molecules

    • Selectins: Facilitate initial leukocyte capture and rolling through interactions with sialyl-Lewis X on endothelial glycoproteins.

      • L-selectin: Primarily found on lymphocytes.
      • E-selectin: Detected on activated endothelium.
      • P-selectin: Also on activated endothelium.

    • Integrins: Provide firm adhesion and promote transmigration of leukocytes across the endothelium.

      • LFA-1 and MAC-1: Found on T lymphocytes and monocytes, interact with ICAM-1 on activated endothelium.
      • VLA-4 and α4β7: Present on T lymphocytes and monocytes, bind to VCAM-1 and MAdCAM-1 on endothelium.

    Inflammatory Cell Communication

    • Activation of leukocytes occurs through receptors that signal from other immune cells like macrophages.
    • ROS (Reactive Oxygen Species) production in neutrophils is enhanced, contributing to inflammation and phagocytosis of pathogens.
    • Histamine increases vascular permeability and promotes tissue edema, aiding the recruitment of immune cells.

    Consequences of Inflammation

    • Excess activation of leukocytes can lead to tissue damage, which may exacerbate autoinflammatory responses.
    • Increased levels of leukotrienes (LTB and LTC) result from neutrophils during inflammatory processes and can act as potent chemotactic agents.
    • Aberrant immune responses may link to conditions such as allergic reactions or chronic inflammation, causing further damage to local tissues.

    Summary

    • Acute inflammation involves complex interactions between vascular responses, leukocyte adhesion, and signaling molecules, culminating in effective pathogen clearance but potential tissue damage if dysregulated.

    Inflammation Overview

    • Inflammation is a response to harmful stimuli such as microbes and necrotic tissue.
    • Key mediators include opsonins, which label pathogens for destruction by immune cells.

    Immune Cell Recruitment

    • Recruitment of leukocytes and plasma proteins to sites of injury is crucial in inflammation.
    • Tissue cells and blood circulation play vital roles in detecting and responding to inflammatory stimuli.

    Principal Inflammatory Cells

    • Major cell types include leukocytes, specifically neutrophils and macrophages.
    • Neutrophils are the first responders, while macrophages play a prolonged role in healing and repairing tissues.

    Acute vs Chronic Inflammation

    • Acute Inflammation:

      • Rapid onset (minutes to hours) with a brief duration (days).
      • Involves mainly neutrophils, usually self-limited tissue injury, and minimal scarring.
      • Mediators include histamine, prostaglandins, and cytokines.
      • Common causes include infections by pyogenic bacteria and viruses.

    • Chronic Inflammation:

      • Slower onset (days) and prolonged duration.
      • Involves macrophages, lymphocytes, and can cause extensive tissue damage and significant scarring.
      • Mediators primarily consist of cytokines with less pronounced local and systemic signs.

    Phagocytes

    • Neutrophils:

      • Originate from hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow.
      • Short life span (1-2 days) in tissues and respond quickly to stimuli.
      • Derived from degranulation and produce reactive oxygen species (ROS).

    • Macrophages:

      • Can be derived from monocytes or early stem cells in the yolk sac or fetal liver during development.
      • Long-lived, persisting in tissues for days, weeks, or even years.
      • Play a role in prolonged inflammation and cytokine production.

    Leukocyte Adhesion and Migration

    • Leukocyte recruitment involves a sequence of rolling, integrin activation, stable adhesion, and migration through the endothelium.
    • This process is mediated by selectins (P-selectin, E-selectin) and integrins which facilitate the attachment and movement across blood vessels.

    Reactive Species in Phagocytosis

    • Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) are crucial for killing ingested microbes.
    • Different reactive species can harm both pathogens and host tissues if not carefully regulated.

    Summary Table of Key Differences

    • In acute inflammation: Neutrophils dominate, signs are prominent, and tissue injury is self-limited.
    • In chronic inflammation: Macrophages and lymphocytes are prevalent, signs are milder, and tissue injury can be extensive and leading to scarring.

    Role of Cytokines

    • Cytokines like IL-1 play critical roles in mediating inflammation and activating immune responses.
    • They are essential for communication between cells during inflammatory processes.

    Inflammation Overview

    • Inflammation triggers chemical mediators that facilitate vascular and cellular reactions to eliminate harmful agents.
    • Chronic inflammation can develop after acute inflammation or evolve independently, characterized by prolonged duration.

    Key Features of Chronic Inflammation

    • Associated with increased tissue destruction compared to acute inflammation.
    • Tissue damage may occur due to persistent presence of pathogens or inflammatory stimuli.

    Cellular Components in Inflammation

    • Inflammatory responses involve various immune cells:
      • Cytokines: Critical signaling proteins released during inflammation.
      • Macrophages and Lymphocytes: Key players in recognizing and responding to pathogens.

    Mechanisms of Protective Response

    • Activation of blood vessels enhances permeability, allowing essential immune components to access affected tissues.
    • Lymphatic vessels play a role in draining exudate and transporting immune cells to lymph nodes.

    Immune Cell Activation

    • Functional distinctions exist between acute and chronic inflammation, driven by different cellular responses and mediators.
    • Adhesion molecules mediate interactions between leukocytes and endothelial cells, facilitating migration to inflamed tissues.

    Adhesion Molecules in Leukocyte Migration

    • Selectins:

      • L-selectin on lymphocytes binds to sialyl-Lewis X on various glycoproteins.
      • E-selectin and P-selectin on activated endothelium facilitate leukocyte adhesion through similar interactions with glycoproteins.

    • Integrins:

      • Various integrins (e.g., LFA-1, MAC-1, VLA-4) are expressed on leukocytes, allowing firm adhesion to activated endothelial cells via their respective ligands (ICAM-1, VCAM-1).

    Phagocytosis

    • Neutrophils and macrophages engage in phagocytosis of pathogens, debris, and dead cells.
    • Recognition of foreign particles occurs through receptors that activate and initiate engulfment.
    • Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) trigger these immune mechanisms by binding receptors on phagocytes.

    Mediators of Inflammation

    • Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide produced by activated immune cells play prominent roles in pathogen destruction.
    • Various mediators, such as cytokines and enzymes from lysosomes, facilitate inflammatory responses and tissue repair.

    Conclusion on Inflammatory Responses

    • The effectiveness of inflammation relies on a balanced action of mediators, ensuring that the response addresses pathogens without causing excessive tissue damage.
    • Synchronization of processes involved in inflammation is crucial for a successful immune response.

    Invasion and Production of Mediators

    • Microbes can invade tissues, triggering a complex immune response.
    • Key cells involved in this response include neutrophils, macrophages, and various leukocytes.
    • Mediators such as cytokines and chemokines are essential for coordinating immune responses.

    Blood Vessel Changes

    • Inflammation causes blood vessels to change, facilitating the arrival of immune cells to the site of injury.
    • Exudation of cells and plasma proteins from blood requires interrelated changes in blood vessel structures.
    • Mediators released during this process lead to increased vascular permeability.

    Rolling and Adhesion of Leukocytes

    • Leukocyte rolling occurs due to interactions with P-selectin and E-selectin on endothelial cells.
    • Integrin activation leads to stable adhesion of leukocytes, transitioning from a low-affinity to a high-affinity state.
    • Chemokines play a vital role in integrin activation and subsequent migration of leukocytes through the endothelium.

    Phagocytosis Mechanism

    • Phagocytes engulf microbes, forming a phagosome that fuses with lysosomes to form a phagolysosome.
    • Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and other mediators, like nitric oxide (NO), are crucial for degrading and killing ingested microbes.

    Cell-Derived Mediators

    • Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are produced by neutrophils and macrophages to help destroy pathogens.
    • In addition to ROS, nitric oxide (NO) functions as a signaling molecule and effector in inflammatory responses.
    • Prostaglandins and leukotrienes derived from arachidonic acid are key mediators in inflammation.

    Regulation and Balance

    • Antioxidant enzymes are necessary for preventing oxidative damage to healthy tissues during the inflammatory response.
    • The immune response includes checks and balances to ensure efficient pathogen clearance while minimizing collateral damage to surrounding tissues.

    Functional Role of Nitric Oxide

    • Nitric oxide (NO) primarily originates from macrophages and serves multiple roles, including vasodilation and antimicrobial activity.
    • NO synthesis is regulated by cytokines and is influenced by the microenvironment during inflammation.

    Dendritic Cells and Immune Response

    • Dendritic cells have dendrite-like projections, playing a crucial role in the immune system by recognizing microbes and dead cells.
    • They capture and present antigens to T cells to enhance immune responses.

    Acute Inflammation

    • Acute inflammation is a rapid protective response triggered by infections, tissue injury, or chemical toxins.
    • Involves vascular reactions leading to increased blood flow and permeability, allowing leukocytes and plasma proteins to enter tissues.
    • Critical for delivering immune cells and initiating the repair process.

    Tissue-Resident Macrophages

    • Macrophages, present in connective tissues and organs, are vital for tissue homeostasis and immune responses.
    • They are named variably based on organ location, such as Kupffer cells in the liver and alveolar macrophages in the lungs.
    • Origin usually from blood monocytes and can persist long-term in tissues.

    Vascular Reactions during Inflammation

    • Key changes include blood vessel dilation and increased permeability, resulting in localized redness and swelling (erythema).
    • Vascular changes lead to stasis, characterized by slow blood flow and increased concentration of leukocytes, particularly neutrophils, within the first 6 to 24 hours of inflammation.

    Role of Leukocytes

    • Neutrophils adhere to the endothelium, migrating toward inflamed tissues in response to stimuli.
    • Activated leukocytes deliver signals to recruit additional immune cells, orchestrating the inflammatory response.

    Pro-inflammatory Mediators

    • Prostaglandins and leukotrienes are derived from arachidonic acid and play pivotal roles in mediating inflammation.
    • Healthy tissues are typically protected from damage by reactive oxygen species (ROS) through the action of antioxidant enzymes that degrade these harmful agents.

    Nitric Oxide in Inflammation

    • Nitric oxide (NO) is predominantly produced in macrophages during inflammatory responses.
    • Functions in signaling and modulating the vascular responses necessary for effective inflammation and repair.

    General Functions of Inflammation

    • Inflammation serves to isolate and eliminate infectious agents, clear out necrotic cells, and initiate tissue healing and regeneration.
    • Macrophages and other leukocytes are essential for phagocytosing debris and pathogens, supporting tissue regeneration.

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    Description

    This quiz deals with the effects of acute vessel damage on blood flow, concentration, and inflammation. It also covers the response of small vessels and the increase in blood viscosity.

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