Acute Haemorrhage and Blood Transfusion

Severe haemorrhage can be caused by traumatic injuries, such as splenic or liver injury, haemothorax, pelvis fracture, or major surgery. Other causes include bleeding from oesophageal varices, duodenal ulcer, ruptured aortic aneurysm, pre- and postpartum haemorrhage, and ruptured ectopic pregnancy.

Haemorrhage occurs when red blood cells escape from vessels, and is classified by site (external or internal) and type of vessel (arterial, venous, or capillary).

Primary haemorrhage occurs at the time of trauma, while reactionary haemorrhage occurs within 24 hours due to an insecure ligature or dislodged clot, and secondary haemorrhage occurs one to two weeks later due to infection eroding a vessel wall.

Aetiology of haemorrhage can be traumatic, iatrogenic, atherosclerotic, inflammatory, neoplastic, or due to bleeding diathesis.

General surgery response to hemorrhage involves stopping the bleeding locally through vasoconstriction, platelet plug, and blood clotting. Systemically, it involves neural and endocrine responses to maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion of critical tissues.

Neural responses include stimulation of the sympathetic system, resulting in constriction of veins and arterioles, increased heart rate and myocardial contraction, and increased release of catecholamines and metabolic hormones.

Endocrine responses include release of catecholamines, increased ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone, and glucagon, and inhibition of insulin release.

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system is also involved in maintaining effective circulatory volume and perfusion by releasing aldosterone and vasopressin.

Symptoms of haemorrhage include weakness, fainting, feeling cold and thirsty, mental status changes, pulse and blood pressure changes, respiratory distress, hypothermia, and oliguria.

Clinical estimation of blood loss can be made by assessing mental status, skin colour and capillary refill, pulse and blood pressure, respiratory rate, and urine output.

Estimated blood volume is 70 ml/kg in adults and 80 ml/kg in children, and losses up to 15% of blood volume can be compensated for by the body's mechanisms.

Common signs of haemorrhage include pale, cold, and clammy skin, slow capillary refill, hypotension, tachycardia, and tachypnea.

Haemorrhage can be fatal if a large artery is involved, such as the carotid artery after a radical neck dissection.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, neoplasia, and bleeding diathesis.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on site (internal or external) and type of vessel (arterial, venous, or capillary).

The body responds to haemorrhage through local and systemic mechanisms, including vasoconstriction, platelet plug, blood clotting, neural responses, and endocrine responses.

Neural responses include stimulation of the sympathetic system, release of catecholamines, and inhibition of the vagus nerve.

Endocrine responses include release of ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone, glucagon, and vasopressin.

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system is involved in maintaining effective circulatory volume and perfusion by releasing aldosterone and vasopressin.

Clinical estimation of blood loss can be made based on symptoms, signs, and measurements of blood loss, mental status, skin colour and capillary refill, pulse and blood pressure, respiratory rate, and urine output.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, such as the carotid artery after a radical neck dissection.

The body's response to haemorrhage involves local and systemic mechanisms to stop the bleeding and maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage is a serious medical condition that can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia, and is characterized by the escape of red blood cells from vessels.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on site and type of vessel, and can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

The body responds to haemorrhage through local and systemic mechanisms, including vasoconstriction, platelet plug, blood clotting, neural responses, and endocrine responses.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, and is characterized by symptoms such as weakness, fainting, coldness, thirst, mental status changes, pulse and blood pressure changes, respiratory distress, and oliguria.

The body's response to haemorrhage includes local mechanisms to stop the bleeding, and systemic mechanisms to maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion, including neural and endocrine responses.

Common causes of severe haemorrhage include trauma, major surgery, bleeding oesophageal varices, bleeding duodenal ulcer, ruptured aortic aneurysm, pre and postpartum haemorrhage, and ruptured ectopic pregnancy.

The body's response to haemorrhage is aimed at stopping the bleeding and maintaining effective circulatory volume and perfusion, through neural and endocrine mechanisms.

Primary haemorrhage occurs at the time of trauma, reactionary haemorrhage occurs within 24 hours after trauma, and secondary haemorrhage occurs one to two weeks after trauma.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, such as the carotid artery after sloughing of the skin flaps of a radical neck dissection.

The body's response to haemorrhage involves local and systemic mechanisms to stop the bleeding and maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including traumatic, atherosclerotic, inflammatory, and neoplastic causes.

Haemorrhage can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary, based on the timing and cause of the bleeding.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large vessel is involved, such as the aorta in the case of a ruptured aneurysm.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage can cause a significant decrease in effective circulatory volume and perfusion, which can lead to shock if not treated promptly.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on the site of bleeding and the type of vessel involved.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, and is characterized by symptoms such as weakness, fainting, pallor, tachycardia, hypotension, and respiratory distress.

The body responds to haemorrhage through local and systemic mechanisms, including vasoconstriction, platelet plug, blood clotting, neural responses, and endocrine responses.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, and is characterized by symptoms such as weakness, fainting, pallor, tachycardia, hypotension, and respiratory distress.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on the site of bleeding and the type of vessel involved.

The body responds to haemorrhage through various mechanisms, including

Severe haemorrhage can be caused by traumatic injuries, such as splenic or liver injury, haemothorax, pelvis fracture, or major surgery. Other causes include bleeding from oesophageal varices, duodenal ulcer, ruptured aortic aneurysm, pre- and postpartum haemorrhage, and ruptured ectopic pregnancy.

Haemorrhage occurs when red blood cells escape from vessels, and is classified by site (external or internal) and type of vessel (arterial, venous, or capillary).

Primary haemorrhage occurs at the time of trauma, while reactionary haemorrhage occurs within 24 hours due to an insecure ligature or dislodged clot, and secondary haemorrhage occurs one to two weeks later due to infection eroding a vessel wall.

Aetiology of haemorrhage can be traumatic, iatrogenic, atherosclerotic, inflammatory, neoplastic, or due to bleeding diathesis.

General surgery response to hemorrhage involves stopping the bleeding locally through vasoconstriction, platelet plug, and blood clotting. Systemically, it involves neural and endocrine responses to maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion of critical tissues.

Neural responses include stimulation of the sympathetic system, resulting in constriction of veins and arterioles, increased heart rate and myocardial contraction, and increased release of catecholamines and metabolic hormones.

Endocrine responses include release of catecholamines, increased ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone, and glucagon, and inhibition of insulin release.

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system is also involved in maintaining effective circulatory volume and perfusion by releasing aldosterone and vasopressin.

Symptoms of haemorrhage include weakness, fainting, feeling cold and thirsty, mental status changes, pulse and blood pressure changes, respiratory distress, hypothermia, and oliguria.

Clinical estimation of blood loss can be made by assessing mental status, skin colour and capillary refill, pulse and blood pressure, respiratory rate, and urine output.

Estimated blood volume is 70 ml/kg in adults and 80 ml/kg in children, and losses up to 15% of blood volume can be compensated for by the body's mechanisms.

Common signs of haemorrhage include pale, cold, and clammy skin, slow capillary refill, hypotension, tachycardia, and tachypnea.

Haemorrhage can be fatal if a large artery is involved, such as the carotid artery after a radical neck dissection.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, neoplasia, and bleeding diathesis.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on site (internal or external) and type of vessel (arterial, venous, or capillary).

The body responds to haemorrhage through local and systemic mechanisms, including vasoconstriction, platelet plug, blood clotting, neural responses, and endocrine responses.

Neural responses include stimulation of the sympathetic system, release of catecholamines, and inhibition of the vagus nerve.

Endocrine responses include release of ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone, glucagon, and vasopressin.

The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system is involved in maintaining effective circulatory volume and perfusion by releasing aldosterone and vasopressin.

Clinical estimation of blood loss can be made based on symptoms, signs, and measurements of blood loss, mental status, skin colour and capillary refill, pulse and blood pressure, respiratory rate, and urine output.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, such as the carotid artery after a radical neck dissection.

The body's response to haemorrhage involves local and systemic mechanisms to stop the bleeding and maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage is a serious medical condition that can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia, and is characterized by the escape of red blood cells from vessels.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on site and type of vessel, and can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

The body responds to haemorrhage through local and systemic mechanisms, including vasoconstriction, platelet plug, blood clotting, neural responses, and endocrine responses.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, and is characterized by symptoms such as weakness, fainting, coldness, thirst, mental status changes, pulse and blood pressure changes, respiratory distress, and oliguria.

The body's response to haemorrhage includes local mechanisms to stop the bleeding, and systemic mechanisms to maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion, including neural and endocrine responses.

Common causes of severe haemorrhage include trauma, major surgery, bleeding oesophageal varices, bleeding duodenal ulcer, ruptured aortic aneurysm, pre and postpartum haemorrhage, and ruptured ectopic pregnancy.

The body's response to haemorrhage is aimed at stopping the bleeding and maintaining effective circulatory volume and perfusion, through neural and endocrine mechanisms.

Primary haemorrhage occurs at the time of trauma, reactionary haemorrhage occurs within 24 hours after trauma, and secondary haemorrhage occurs one to two weeks after trauma.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, such as the carotid artery after sloughing of the skin flaps of a radical neck dissection.

The body's response to haemorrhage involves local and systemic mechanisms to stop the bleeding and maintain effective circulatory volume and perfusion.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including traumatic, atherosclerotic, inflammatory, and neoplastic causes.

Haemorrhage can be classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary, based on the timing and cause of the bleeding.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large vessel is involved, such as the aorta in the case of a ruptured aneurysm.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage can cause a significant decrease in effective circulatory volume and perfusion, which can lead to shock if not treated promptly.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on the site of bleeding and the type of vessel involved.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, and is characterized by symptoms such as weakness, fainting, pallor, tachycardia, hypotension, and respiratory distress.

The body responds to haemorrhage through local and systemic mechanisms, including vasoconstriction, platelet plug, blood clotting, neural responses, and endocrine responses.

Haemorrhage can be caused by various factors, including trauma, atherosclerosis, inflammation, and neoplasia.

Haemorrhage can be life-threatening if a large artery is involved, and is characterized by symptoms such as weakness, fainting, pallor, tachycardia, hypotension, and respiratory distress.

Haemorrhage can be classified based on the site of bleeding and the type of vessel involved.

The body responds to haemorrhage through various mechanisms, including