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Questions and Answers
What condition can hyperventilation lead to?
Which of the following is a cause of metabolic acidosis?
What primary change occurs in respiratory acidosis?
What is the normal range for blood standard bicarbonate (SB) in mmol/l?
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Respiratory alkalosis can be caused by which of the following?
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Which situation is least likely to lead to hyperosmolar hypohydration?
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What are the signs of respiratory alkalosis?
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Respiratory acidosis could develop due to what condition?
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Severe diarrhea typically results in which of the following conditions?
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In a patient with severe diarrhea, what is most likely to occur?
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Which compensatory mechanism acts in response to metabolic alkalosis?
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What does hypoosmolar hypohydration indicate about fluid balance?
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Severe acidosis is likely to cause which of the following effects?
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To diagnose hyperosmolar hyperhydration, which space's osmolarity is primarily measured?
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Which symptom is characteristic of hyperosmolar hyperhydration?
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What is the primary change in the internal environment during metabolic acidosis?
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Which condition results from a change in hypothalamic set point?
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Which substance is crucial for resetting the thermostatic set-point in the hypothalamus?
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What best describes fibrosis?
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Which morphological feature indicates acute inflammation?
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Which cytokines are most important in causing fever?
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What is a possible cause of fever?
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Which organ primarily increases body temperature during a fever?
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What mechanism explains the pathogenesis of thirst in a patient with hyperglycemia?
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Which of the following are characteristics of acute inflammation?
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Which substances can enter inflamed tissues through exocytosis?
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Which molecules are responsible for high-affinity interactions between leukocytes and endothelium during inflammation?
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Which statement about integrins is correct?
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What type of inflammation is phlegmonous appendicitis characterized by?
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Which statements are true regarding fibrinous inflammation?
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What accurately describes an inflammatory ulcer?
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What does hypercapnia refer to?
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Which of the following does not represent a main type of exudate?
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Which of the following is not a basic mechanism that causes exudation?
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What is the role of COX2 inhibitors in inflammation?
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What is not a function of Interferons?
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Which mediator of inflammation is incorrectly paired?
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In the case of Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS), how is the activity of CARS affected?
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Which of the following responses is not true regarding CRP?
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Shivering is primarily initiated by impulses from which part of the nervous system?
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Study Notes
Acid-base balance
- Hyperventilation causes respiratory alkalosis
- Diarrhoea causes metabolic acidosis
- Respiratory acidosis causes a decrease in pH and an increase in pCO2
- Normal blood standard bicarbonate (SB) is 22-26 mmol/l
- Metabolic acidosis develops in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis
- Metabolic acidosis is caused by increased production of endogenous acids, loss of bicarbonate via diarrhoea, and accumulation of endogenous acids because of inappropriately low renal excretion in chronic kidney disease
- Respiratory alkalosis develops in patients with hypobaric hypoxic hypoxia
- Respiratory alkalosis can be caused by meningitis, excessive mechanical ventilation and hypoxic hypoxia at high altitude
- Respiratory alkalosis can present with light-headedness, confusion, peripheral and circumoral parasthesia, cramps, syncope
- Signs and symptoms of acute respiratory acidosis include headache, anxiety, gait disturbances, drowsiness, and tremor
- Respiratory acidosis develops if the patient has hypoventilation
- Respiratory alkalosis can develop during general anesthesia and due to massive loss of gastric juices
- The compensatory mechanism in respiratory alkalosis causes a decrease in SB
- The compensatory mechanism in metabolic alkalosis causes hyperventilation
- Severe diarrhoea causes metabolic acidosis and hypoosmolar hypohydration
- Severe acidosis causes stimulation of the respiratory centre
- To diagnose hyperosmolar hyperhydration, increased osmolarity is measured in the extracellular space
- Hyperosmolar hyperhydration can develop in patients with diabetes mellitus and it is characterized by development of great thirst, increasing MCHC, and decreasing relative density of urine
- Respiratory alkalosis will develop if the patient has hyperventilation
- Normal carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system in blood is HCO3/H2CO3 – 1/20
- Anions of the strong acids in the kidneys are excreted in the form of ammonium salts
- During metabolic acidosis, the primary change in internal environment is a decrease of bicarbonate concentration
- Fever results from a change in hypothalamic set point
- Resetting of the thermostatic set point in the hypothalamus to a higher level directly depends on TNF-a, IL-1, and IL-6
Inflammation
- Fibrosis is the development of new connective tissue
- Neutrophils and tissue oedema indicate acute inflammation. Mesenchyme cell infiltrate and fibrosis replacing specialized tissue are characteristic for chronic inflammation
- The most important cytokines in causing fever are IL-1, IL-6, and TNF-a
- The cause of fever includes bacterial and viral infections, and myocardial infarction
- The hypothalamus is responsible for increasing body temperature in fever
- The pathogenesis of thirst in a patient with hyperglycemia is increased plasma osmolarity due to hyperglycaemia
- Physico-chemical changes in the focus of inflammation are acidosis, disionia, hyperkalia, exudation and hyperthermia
- The basic mechanism, which cause exudation are increased permeability of blood vessels, hyperionia in the focus of inflammation, increased arterial blood pressure, changes of filtration in capillary, and disorders of lymph retention
- The main types of exudates are serous, catharrhal, plasmous, fibrinous, haemorrhagic, and purulent
- Mediators of inflammation - lipids metabolites are eicosanoids, PAF, and chemokines
- Inhibition of complement system activation in therapeutic needs can be achieved by monoclonal antibodies
- Interferons have antiviral and antiproliferative functions, and they activate T-lymphocytes
- COX2 inhibitors block the synthesis of prostaglandins
- Glucocorticoids directly block the activity of phospholipase A2
- In case of inflammation, COX1, COX2, lipooxigenasi, and phospholipase A2, are induced
- Pro-resolution mediators of inflammation are lipoxynes, protectins, and resolvins
- CRP (C-reactive protein) is an acute-phase protein that is not synthesised in the kidneys
- Physical thermoregulation regulates heat production and the return of heat
- Thyroid hormone level increase can increase heat production in 1 day
- Shivering is initiated by impulses from the hypothalamus
- Activation of alpha-1 adrenergic receptors in vascular smooth muscle causes vasoconstriction
- The following changes can be present in acute inflammation: cellular polymorphism, infiltration of neutrophilic leukocytes
- The following changes can be present in chronic inflammation: cellular polymorphism, development of granuloma, and presence of atypical mitoses
- Substances that enter the inflamed tissues during exocytosis are plasma proteins, lysosomal enzymes, and reactive oxygen intermediates
- Integrins ensure firm adhesion between leukocytes and endothelium in inflammations
- Selectins ensure low-affinity interaction between leukocytes and endothelium in inflammations
- Integrins are involved in leukocyte adhesion, they can undergo up-regulation of the affinity
- Phlegmonous appendicitis is characterised by purulent inflammation
- Phlegmonous inflammation is a type of purulent inflammation
- The exudate in fibrinous inflammation is rich in fibrinogen
- Inflammation of ulcer is tissue destruction of the surface due to inflammation
- Inflammatory ulcer is local tissue destruction on the surface of an organ due to inflammation
- Hypercapnia is defined as increased amount of carbon dioxide in blood
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Description
Test your knowledge on acid-base balance concepts, including respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis. Explore how various physiological conditions affect pH levels and bicarbonate in the blood. This quiz will help reinforce your understanding of these important topics in human physiology.
