Achievement Explanations Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What did the author find in the three most recent personality journals?

Some suppressed content

88.9% of studies used trait measures (correct)

40 articles with empirical studies

45 articles with empirical studies

Which journals did the author examine for the survey?

Journal of Personality, Journal of Research in Personality, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (correct)

Journal of Personality, Journal of Research in Personality, Journal of Social Psychology

Journal of Personality, Journal of Social Anxiety, Journal of Optimism

Journal of Trait Approach, Journal of Achievement Motivation, Journal of Type A

What percentage of the articles included at least one trait measure?

78.9%

88.9% (correct)

98.9%

68.9%

What is the purpose of using trait measures in the studies?

To compare people on different parts of a trait continuum Signup and view all the answers

How many articles contained at least one trait measure?

40 Signup and view all the answers

What type of outlet are the examined journals for current research on personality?

Prominent outlets Signup and view all the answers

What are the three dimensions of attributions mentioned in the text?

Stability, locus, control Signup and view all the answers

Which dimension of attribution refers to whether the cause is internal (intelligence) or external (luck)?

Stability Signup and view all the answers

According to research, what do most people attribute losses to?

Unstable causes Signup and view all the answers

What category of achievement goals involves developing competence?

Mastery goals Signup and view all the answers

Which type of attribution can help students do better in exams and other classes?

Control attribution Signup and view all the answers

What does the dimension of locus refer to in attributions?

Whether the cause is internal (effort) or external (difficult test) Signup and view all the answers

According to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire, which of the following statements is true about achieving mastery-avoidance goals?

I worry that I may not learn all that I possibly could in this class. Signup and view all the answers

What is the mean value for Performance-Approach goals according to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

4.82 Signup and view all the answers

Based on the Achievement Goal Questionnaire, which type of goal is indicated by the statement 'It is important for me to do well compared to others in this class'?

Performance-Approach goals Signup and view all the answers

What statement reflects Mastery-Approach goals according to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

I want to learn as much as possible from this class. Signup and view all the answers

What should be added to obtain the score for Mastery-Avoidance goals according to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

Items 2, 6, and 10 Signup and view all the answers

What is the standard deviation for Performance-Avoidance goals based on the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

1.67 Signup and view all the answers

Which type of goal is reflected in the statement 'My fear of performing poorly in this class is often what motivates me' according to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

Performance-Avoidance goals Signup and view all the answers

What are the statements that contribute to the score for Performance-Approach goals according to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

Items 3, 7, and 11 Signup and view all the answers

According to college undergraduates' scores, what is the mean value for Mastery-Approach goals based on the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

5.52 Signup and view all the answers

What type of goal does the statement 'I just want to avoid doing poorly in this class' represent according to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

Mastery-Avoidance goals Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of personality research today?

Measuring and examining traits Signup and view all the answers

Who identified the need for Achievement as the desire to accomplish something difficult and excel?

Henry Murray Signup and view all the answers

Which test was used by early researchers to measure need for Achievement?

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Signup and view all the answers

What did McClelland et al. focus on in relation to high need achievers?

Entrepreneurial behavior Signup and view all the answers

What are people with high need for Achievement more likely to find, according to the text?

Economic prosperity Signup and view all the answers

In which field can research on achievement motivation be found according to the text?

Developmental psychology Signup and view all the answers

What is used in medical research to identify candidates for heart disease?

Type A behavior pattern and measures of hostility Signup and view all the answers

What does personality research help understand according to the text?

Social anxiety Signup and view all the answers

What do mastery goals refer to?

Desire to learn and master new skills or knowledge Signup and view all the answers

How do mastery-oriented students tend to approach tasks?

They often choose challenging tasks Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely behavior of individuals with a mastery orientation?

More likely to share information and work collaboratively Signup and view all the answers

What is one implication of understanding the different types of achievement goals?

Implications for education, business, and other areas of life Signup and view all the answers

According to research, what do mastery goals lead to?

High achievement Signup and view all the answers

Which type of goals often lead to more engaging and effective learning experiences?

Mastery goals Signup and view all the answers

How can teachers and business managers encourage mastery goals?

By altering assignments, grading policies, and evaluation methods Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome of performance goals?

Less likelihood to share information and more likelihood to see others as competition Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely impact of performance goals on learning and long-term retention of information?

Might motivate individuals to work hard but may not lead to as much learning or long-term retention of information Signup and view all the answers

What can a combination of mastery and performance goals be effective for?

Motivating individuals to work hard and share information Signup and view all the answers

How does a mastery orientation affect individuals' willingness to share information in groups?

Increases the likelihood of sharing information and working collaboratively in groups Signup and view all the answers

What is one way in which people with performance goals may see others?

As competition or obstacles to their own achievements Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential drawback of a high need for achievement in upper management?

Difficulty in delegating authority Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, the need for achievement is less predictive of success for which level of managers?

Senior managers Signup and view all the answers

What was a limitation of early research on achievement motivation?

Limited opportunities for women in business Signup and view all the answers

As opportunities for women in the business world have increased, researchers have found that the need for achievement is similarly predictive of success for:

Women Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what do men and women value and define differently?

Achievement and success Signup and view all the answers

Which cultural focus is mentioned as prioritizing personal accomplishments?

Individualistic cultures Signup and view all the answers

In which type of culture may workers be more motivated by the success of the group as a whole?

Collectivist cultures Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what are the negative consequences linked to persistent reliance on avoidance goals?

Poor performance and a lowered sense of well-being Signup and view all the answers

What has researchers found about the use of achievement goals in high school and college students?

A great deal of stability in the use of achievement goals Signup and view all the answers

What is emphasized by teachers to lead to higher levels of motivation and learning, according to the text?

Mastery and improving skills Signup and view all the answers

In which direction do many schools take their approach, contrary to what may lead to higher levels of motivation and learning?

Emphasizing grades, competition among students, and the threat of poor performance Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what do researchers find when teachers emphasize mastery and improving skills?

Higher levels of motivation and learning Signup and view all the answers

What is mentioned as a likely impact of performance goals on learning and long-term retention of information?

Decreased motivation and poorer retention of information Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT identified as a major part of Type A personality by psychologists?

Adaptability Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic behavior of Type A individuals in group discussions?

They dominate group discussions Signup and view all the answers

In response to competition and perceived threats to control, Type A individuals tend to have higher:

Heart rate and blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

What do numerous laboratory studies find about Type A participants in comparison to Type B participants?

They outperform Type Bs on achievement tasks Signup and view all the answers

Type A personality was initially examined in relation to which health condition by medical researchers?

Cardiovascular disease Signup and view all the answers

What is the main reason for studying the impact of Type A personality on overall health and well-being?

To determine its overall effect on health and well-being Signup and view all the answers

What was the initial finding of medical researchers regarding Type A personality and cardiovascular problems?

It is strongly linked to cardiovascular problems Signup and view all the answers

What is a typical response of Type A individuals when denied something?

They are more likely to want it even after being denied Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of early medical research on Type A personality?

Cardiovascular disease Signup and view all the answers

What does the behavior pattern of Type A individuals in group discussions indicate?

Dominance Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of Type A individuals in response to competition and perceived threats to control?

Elevated heart rate and blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

How do Type A participants typically perform in comparison to Type B participants on achievement tasks according to numerous laboratory studies?

They outperform Type Bs on achievement tasks Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what physical illnesses are associated with high anger and hostility?

Asthma and liver disease Signup and view all the answers

In which culture may expressing anger be related to lower health risks according to the text?

Eastern cultures Signup and view all the answers

What are the factors contributing to cardiovascular problems mentioned in the text?

Unhealthy lifestyles and poor social support Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what is a likely outcome of high hostility levels?

Increased risk of cardiovascular diseases Signup and view all the answers

What did research indicate about people high in hostility in social interactions?

They exhibited physiological reactions associated with cardiovascular issues like high blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

What type of programs can be effective in preventing cardiovascular diseases, according to the text?

Relaxation techniques and perspective-taking programs Signup and view all the answers

What did the text mention about being Type A without the hostility component?

It is not related to cardiovascular health Signup and view all the answers

What are individuals high in hostility more likely to exhibit in social interactions according to one study?

Increased blood pressure compared to those with low hostility Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of the research discussed in the text?

The relationship between personality traits and physical illnesses Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome of high anger and hostility according to the text?

Lower pain tolerance Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what is a potential drawback of expressing anger in some cultures?

Reduced social acceptance Signup and view all the answers

What did one study find about participants high in hostility in social interactions?

Increased blood pressure compared to those with low hostility Signup and view all the answers

What is the main culprit for health problems related to Type A behavior?

Hostility Signup and view all the answers

According to research, which type of individuals are more than twice as likely to suffer from some form of coronary heart disease?

Type A students Signup and view all the answers

What did one study find about individuals using anger-related words and the death rate from heart disease?

Strong correlation found Signup and view all the answers

What is the predictor of heart disease according to early studies?

Type A behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which component of Type A behavior did researchers find to be the culprit for health problems?

Hostility Signup and view all the answers

What did subsequent studies report inconsistent findings regarding in relation to Type A behavior and cardiovascular disease?

'Type A behavior' as a predictor Signup and view all the answers

What do people high in hostility tend to have a strong reaction to?

'Minor frustrations and inconveniences' Signup and view all the answers

Which group received more athletic awards and engaged in more social activities in high school?

'Type A students' Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what did researchers later find to be the culprit for health problems related to Type A behavior?

'Hostility' Signup and view all the answers

What did early studies find that Type A is a predictor of?

'Heart disease' Signup and view all the answers

'High-anger' participants were more than twice as likely to suffer from what over a 4½-year period?

'Coronary artery disease' Signup and view all the answers

What was found about the use of anger-related words in a county and the age-adjusted rate of death from heart disease in that county?

Strong correlation found Signup and view all the answers

What is the relation between social anxiety and social interactions?

Social anxiety is related to social interactions or anticipated social interactions Signup and view all the answers

How do socially anxious people feel in social situations?

Awkward and nervous Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes social anxiety from introversion?

Social anxiety causes a preference for solitude Signup and view all the answers

What do socially anxious people often think about in social situations?

What they are doing wrong, how stupid they sound, and how foolish they look Signup and view all the answers

What is the stability of social anxiety tendency?

Relatively stable tendency Signup and view all the answers

According to researchers, what is the relation between social anxiety and shyness?

Synonymous terms Signup and view all the answers

What do socially anxious people become in social situations?

Self-conscious and concerned about negative evaluation Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of people identify as shy according to Zimbardo (1986)?

40% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern of socially anxious people in social situations?

How well they are performing in comparison to others Signup and view all the answers

What are some common experiences of people with social anxiety?

Increased physiological arousal, inability to concentrate, and feelings of nervousness Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes social anxiety from shyness according to most researchers?

They are synonymous terms Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about shy people according to the text?

They are more likely to seek help or advice from a counselor Signup and view all the answers

How do socially anxious people tend to interpret others' facial expressions?

As disapproval Signup and view all the answers

What could socially anxious individuals mistake shyness for?

Lack of interest or intelligence Signup and view all the answers

Why might shy teenagers miss out on potential friendships?

Due to their social anxiety Signup and view all the answers

What do socially anxious people tend to do in social situations according to the text?

Intentionally sabotage pleasant interactions Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what is a likely outcome of social anxiety in terms of seeking help or advice?

Less likely to seek any help or advice Signup and view all the answers

How might shy individuals be perceived by people interacting with them?

As tense, inhibited, and unfriendly Signup and view all the answers

What is the underlying cause of social anxiety according to many researchers?

Fear of negative evaluation by others Signup and view all the answers

What type of social situations can be a nightmarish experience for someone high in social anxiety?

Going on a blind date Signup and view all the answers

How do socially anxious people often deal with their fear of negative evaluation?

They avoid social encounters altogether Signup and view all the answers

What do socially anxious people worry about in social situations?

Rejection by others Signup and view all the answers

What is the main impact of social anxiety in terms of seeking help or advice?

Decreases likelihood of seeking help or advice Signup and view all the answers

Why do socially anxious people often skip parties and avoid blind dates?

To focus on academic tasks instead Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between high positive affect and social activities, according to psychologists?

High positive affect leads to increased social activities Signup and view all the answers

How does the text describe the behavior of high negative affect individuals in terms of conflicts with friends?

They report fewer conflicts with friends Signup and view all the answers

What do studies find regarding the health complaints of high negative affect individuals compared to low negative affect individuals?

They genuinely experience more symptoms and complain more Signup and view all the answers

What possibility does a long-term study on patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis suggest about high negative affect individuals?

They genuinely experience more symptoms and complain more Signup and view all the answers

What are high negative affect individuals related to, according to the text?

Psychological stress and emotional problems Signup and view all the answers

How does the text describe the relationship between social activity and positive affect?

Positive affect and social activity influence each other Signup and view all the answers

How does high positive affect influence conflicts with friends, according to psychologists?

It leads to fewer conflicts with friends Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely impact of high negative affect on health complaints?

It leads to more health complaints Signup and view all the answers

What do studies find about actual symptoms between high and low negative affect individuals?

Actual symptoms do not differ between high and low negative affect individuals Signup and view all the answers

What did a long-term study on patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis suggest about high negative affect individuals experiencing symptoms?

They genuinely experience more symptoms Signup and view all the answers

Which behavior pattern are high negative affect individuals known for in disagreements with romantic partners?

Being accommodating Signup and view all the answers

What is a common behavior of shy individuals in conversations?

Agreeing and clarifying their partner's remarks Signup and view all the answers

In what way does therapy programs focus on helping socially anxious people?

Believe they can make positive impressions Signup and view all the answers

What is emphasized in the chapter on personality traits?

The impact of emotions on behaviors and relationships Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome of higher rates of shyness in cultures emphasizing concern for others' opinions?

Difficulty in initiating conversations Signup and view all the answers

How do socially anxious individuals often cope with social gatherings?

Ask friends to accompany them to alleviate negative thoughts and anxiety Signup and view all the answers

What do shy people often do when they believe they are being evaluated in studies?

Tell shorter and less revealing stories Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of socially anxious individuals' interaction style?

Keeping conversations short and non-threatening Signup and view all the answers

What do socially anxious people often lack confidence in according to the text?

Their ability to make a good impression Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely impact of shyness on storytelling in studies?

Shorter and less revealing stories when being evaluated Signup and view all the answers

What do socially anxious individuals often seek from friends during social gatherings?

Accompany them to alleviate negative thoughts and anxiety Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of shy individuals' behavior in social situations?

Difficulty initiating conversations but little issue continuing once started Signup and view all the answers

What type of individuals are found to have higher rates of shyness according to the text?

Cultures emphasizing concern for others' opinions and avoiding criticism Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, how do high-intensity individuals react to relatively mild situations?

They have strong emotional reactions Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely outcome of high-intensity individuals overestimating the extent to which events will affect them?

They draw unwarranted conclusions Signup and view all the answers

Based on the text, how does happiness differ for high-intensity and low-intensity people?

High-intensity people experience more exhilarating experiences Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, which professions are typically associated with low and high affect intensity?

Scientists and engineers Signup and view all the answers

What does the text suggest about the emotional lives of high and low-intensity individuals?

Both lead different—but not necessarily better or worse—emotional lives Signup and view all the answers

What is suggested by the contrast between high and low-intensity individuals' approach to happiness?

Low-intensity individuals seek exhilaration in happiness Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely outcome of high-intensity individuals experiencing more negative affect as mentioned in the text?

It offsets their experience of more positive affect Signup and view all the answers

What are the three ways emotions can be examined as relatively stable personal characteristics?

Affectivity, intensity, and expressiveness Signup and view all the answers

How are emotions organized around two general dimensions?

Positive affect and negative affect Signup and view all the answers

What did later studies find about the relationship between positive and negative affect?

Being high on one dimension means being low on the other Signup and view all the answers

What does emotional affectivity refer to?

Individual differences in general tendencies to experience positive and negative affect Signup and view all the answers

What do positive and negative affect dimensions help identify?

Typical emotional experiences Signup and view all the answers

What do researchers use factor analysis for in relation to emotions?

To examine the relation among various emotions and find that certain emotions tend to go together Signup and view all the answers

How does the text describe the relationship between social anxiety and social interactions?

Social anxiety tends to inhibit social interactions Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic of Type A individuals in response to competition and perceived threats to control?

Experiencing high stress and hostility Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome of high anger and hostility according to the text?

Increased risk of cardiovascular diseases Signup and view all the answers

What do studies find about the health complaints of high negative affect individuals compared to low negative affect individuals?

They tend to report more health complaints overall Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between high positive affect and social activities, according to psychologists?

High positive affect is associated with greater engagement in social activities Signup and view all the answers

What is emphasized in the chapter on personality traits?

The stability and measurement of personality traits Signup and view all the answers

Which type of people not only experience emotions more intensely but also tend to be more variable?

High-intensity people, whether positive or negative Signup and view all the answers

In an emotional study where students kept daily records of emotions, how was Student A's emotional responses described?

Having moderate highs and lows, labeled as steady or even-tempered Signup and view all the answers

What did the text indicate about the relationship between high- and low-intensity people and their experiences with similar activities?

High-intensity people react more strongly to similar activities Signup and view all the answers

In a study, how did high- and low-intensity people react differently to hypothetical situations?

High-intensity people showed more emotional response Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of Chapter 8 discussed in the text?

The Trait Approach to Emotions Signup and view all the answers

What was the main impact of negative affect on patients according to the text?

More physical health issues unrelated to negative focus Signup and view all the answers

Why is negative affect related to physical health according to the text?

It affects mood-related health behaviors Signup and view all the answers

What do high-intensity people tend to react more strongly to according to the text?

Similar activities as low-intensity people Signup and view all the answers

How did Student B's emotional responses in the study compare to Student A's?

More extreme highs and lows unlike Student A Signup and view all the answers

What did researchers find about the relationship between high positive affect and social activities according to the text?

It increases engagement in social activities Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of understanding the different types of achievement goals according to the text?

It often leads to more engaging and effective learning experiences Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of emotional life is likely to distinguish highly expressive individuals?

Emotional expressiveness Signup and view all the answers

How do highly expressive individuals tend to display their feelings, according to the text?

They wear their emotions on their sleeves Signup and view all the answers

What is a common characteristic used to describe highly expressive individuals?

Outward display of emotions Signup and view all the answers

What do researchers refer to when identifying someone as an 'emotional' person, according to the text?

Emotional expressiveness Signup and view all the answers

How do highly expressive individuals typically behave when feeling a little sad, as mentioned in the text?

They move slowly, shoulders sag, and wear sad faces Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor that distinguishes highly expressive individuals from most people, according to the text?

Emotional expressiveness Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what is the likely outcome of high anger and hostility?

Increased risk of coronary heart disease Signup and view all the answers

What is the likely impact of performance goals on learning and long-term retention of information?

Decreased learning and retention Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of the discussion in the text?

Achievement goals Signup and view all the answers

What do studies find about actual symptoms between high and low negative affect individuals?

High negative affect individuals experience more severe symptoms Signup and view all the answers

What is emphasized in the chapter on personality traits according to the text?

Dispositional optimism Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what should be added to obtain the score for Mastery-Avoidance goals according to the Achievement Goal Questionnaire?

Subtracting scores from other goal types Signup and view all the answers

Which research study is mentioned as supporting the observation that women tend to be more emotionally expressive than men?

McClure, 2000 Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the self-report measure developed to assess individual differences in emotional expressiveness?

Emotional Expressivity Scale Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what is linked to psychological well-being and exhibited by expressive individuals?

High self-esteem and less anxiety Signup and view all the answers

Who emphasized the distinction between optimists and pessimists in the text?

Taylor Signup and view all the answers

What is associated with high achievement and a positive mood according to the text?

Positive thinking and a positive outlook Signup and view all the answers

Which study is mentioned as indicating that expressive individuals experience fewer issues in romantic relationships?

Lavee & Ben-Ari, 2004 Signup and view all the answers

What type of individuals are found to exhibit greater happiness, less anxiety, guilt, and higher self-esteem according to the text?

Expressive individuals Signup and view all the answers

Who developed the Emotional Expressivity Scale mentioned in the text?

Kring et al. Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential benefit of having an optimistic outlook on life?

Wider social networks Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological change is associated with optimists according to the text?

Stronger immune systems Signup and view all the answers

What are pessimists more likely to experience in relation to health-destructive habits?

Increased substance abuse Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic behavior interferes with effective social interactions for socially anxious people?

Reluctance to ask for help Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what are the two major dimensions used to examine emotions in terms of relatively stable individual differences?

Positive affect and emotional intensity Signup and view all the answers

What did early research on Achievement motivation primarily focus on?

Description of people high in need for Achievement Signup and view all the answers

What did more recent studies examine in relation to achievement behavior?

Effects of attributions on achievement behavior Signup and view all the answers

What was initially linked to cardiovascular problems in early research on Type A behavior pattern?

'High-anger' participants Signup and view all the answers

What did later studies identify as the main culprit for cardiovascular problems related to Type A behavior pattern?

'High-anger' participants Signup and view all the answers

Which type of individuals have characteristic behaviors that interfere with effective social interactions, such as self-consciousness and fear of negative evaluation?

Socially anxious people Signup and view all the answers

What was found about the use of anger-related words in a county and the age-adjusted rate of death from heart disease in that county?

Increased rate of death from heart disease Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome of high hostility levels according to the text?

Cardiovascular problems Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, how do optimists and pessimists differ in their coping strategies?

Optimists use active coping strategies, while pessimists rely on avoidance or wishful thinking. Signup and view all the answers

What did the study of college students facing a big exam reveal about the coping strategies of optimists and pessimists?

Optimists used direct problem solving and talking to others, while pessimists relied on wishful thinking and withdrawal Signup and view all the answers

In the study of newlyweds, what did the optimistic spouses engage in more compared to the pessimistic spouses?

Problem-solving behaviors Signup and view all the answers

According to the text, what were optimistic cancer patients more likely to use compared to pessimistic patients?

Active coping strategies and positive coping strategies like humor Signup and view all the answers

What did the study of men recovering from coronary artery bypass surgery reveal about the recovery of optimistic men compared to pessimistic men?

Optimistic men showed better recovery than pessimistic men Signup and view all the answers

What did the text suggest about the health problems of optimistic individuals following the death or severe illness of a loved one?

Optimistic individuals had fewer health problems in the 18 months following the death or severe illness of a loved one than pessimistic individuals. Signup and view all the answers

What was found about the health of optimistic men at ages 45 through 60 compared to pessimistic men?

Optimistic men were in better health at ages 45 through 60 than pessimistic men. Signup and view all the answers

What is dispositional optimism?

An attitude of expecting the best in any situation Signup and view all the answers

How does dispositional optimism influence individuals' behavior?

By fostering better academic performance Signup and view all the answers

What impact does dispositional optimism have in stressful situations?

It results in better psychological adjustment and less distress Signup and view all the answers

In what way does dispositional optimism affect the well-being of individuals recovering from health problems?

It results in better psychological adjustment and less distress Signup and view all the answers

What do studies suggest about the relationship between cultural backgrounds and dispositional optimism?

Collectivist cultures foster more optimistic outlooks than individualistic cultures Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of dispositional optimism on adolescents during challenging times?

Less likelihood of experiencing academic declines and self-esteem losses Signup and view all the answers

How do optimistic individuals typically respond to setbacks and failures?

They are less likely to be discouraged and more persistent than pessimists Signup and view all the answers

What mental health outcomes have been observed in optimistic individuals under stressful conditions?

Fewer negative emotions and better adjustment Signup and view all the answers

How does cultural background influence dispositional optimism?

Individualistic cultures foster more optimistic outlooks than collectivist cultures Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between dispositional optimism and coping with health problems?

It results in better psychological adjustment and less distress Signup and view all the answers

What outcome do optimistic individuals experience during wartime or as caregivers of Alzheimer's patients?

Less stress and better mental health outcomes Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

The text discusses the relationship between achievement motivation and effective leadership, specifically in the context of upper management and executive positions.
A high need for achievement can help individuals succeed, but it can also interfere with effective performance, particularly in delegating authority and motivating others.
Research suggests that the need for achievement is less predictive of success for high-level managers compared to low-level managers.
Early research on achievement motivation was primarily conducted with male participants due to the limited opportunities for women in the business world at the time.
However, as opportunities for women in the business world have increased, researchers have found that the need for achievement is similarly predictive of success for women.
Gender differences in achievement motivation have been found, with men and women valuing and defining achievement differently.
Women are more likely to prioritize internal definitions of success, while men are more likely to prioritize external recognition.
Achievement motivation may also vary across cultures, with individualistic cultures focusing more on personal accomplishments and collectivist cultures prioritizing group accomplishments.
Workers in collectivist cultures may be more motivated by the success of the group as a whole rather than individual recognition.
The concept of achievement motivation may need to be redefined in order to fully understand achievement behavior in different cultural contexts.
When faced with a poor performance outcome, individuals may make various attributions for their failure, such as blaming the test or questioning their abilities.
Type A students take more classes and expect better academic performance (Ovcharchyn, Johnson, & Petzel, 1981) and receive more academic honors and participate in more extracurricular activities than Type B students (Glass, 1977).
Type A students also participate in more sports, receive more athletic awards, and engage in more social activities in high school than their Type B classmates (Glass, 1977).
Early studies found that Type A is a predictor of heart disease (Cooper, Detre, & Weiss, 1981; Rosenman et al., 1975; Jenkins, Zyzanski, & Rosenman, 1976).
However, subsequent studies reported inconsistent findings regarding the relationship between Type A behavior and cardiovascular disease (Matthews & Haynes, 1986; Siegman, 1994; Smigelskas, Zemaitiene, Julkunen, & Kauhanen, 2015).
Researchers later found that the "hostility component" of Type A behavior is the culprit for health problems (Bunde & Suls, 2006; Krantz & McCeney, 2002; Smith, 2006; Smith, Glazer, Ruiz, & Gallo, 2004; Williams, 2010).
People high in hostility tend to have a strong reaction to minor frustrations and inconveniences, often responding with antagonism, disagreeableness, rudeness, surliness, criticalness, and uncooperativeness (Dembroski & Costa, 1987).
Scores on hostility and anger measures predict coronary artery disease (Kawachi, Sparrow, Spiro, Vokonas, & Weiss, 1996; Niaura, Todaro, Stroud, Spiro, Ward, & Weiss, 2002; Williams, Nieto, Sanford, Couper, & Tyroler, 2002; Williams, Nieto, Sanford, & Tyroler, 2001).
One study found that high-anger participants were more than twice as likely to suffer some form of coronary heart disease and nearly three times as likely to be hospitalized or die from heart disease over a 4½-year period (Williams et al., 2000).
Another study found a strong correlation between the use of anger-related words in a county and the age-adjusted rate of death from heart disease in that county, even surpassing the predictive power of well-known risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, and obesity (Eichstaedt et al., 2015).
Shy people often struggle with social situations, showing nervous signs like perspiration and shakiness, and are more likely to feel ashamed or embarrassed (Leary & Meadows, 1991).
Socially anxious people may miss important social cues due to self-consciousness and may blurt out inappropriate things or let conversations fall into silence (Blackhart et al., 2015; Yoon et al., 2015).
People interacting with shy individuals perceive them as more tense, inhibited, and unfriendly than nonshy people (Cheek & Buss, 1981; Galili et al., 2013; Papsdorf & Alden, 1998).
Shy people often fear being judged negatively by others and assume others are not interested in getting to know them (Wenzel & Emerson, 2009).
Socially anxious individuals tend to interpret feedback they receive negatively (Amir et al., 2005; Ledley & Heimberg, 2006).
Socially anxious people may be less likely to seek help or advice from a counselor (Phillips & Bruch, 1988) or ask for help from others (DePaulo et al., 1989).
Socially anxious individuals may interpret others' facial expressions as disapproval (Pozo et al., 1991).
Socially anxious people may mistake shyness for a lack of interest or intelligence, and as a result, they may cut conversations short or avoid them altogether (Paulhus & Morgan, 1997).
Shy teenagers may miss out on potential friendships because of their social anxiety (implicit).
Socially anxious individuals may unintentionally sabotage pleasant interactions (implicit).
Psychologists find that individual differences in positive and negative affect predict various important behaviors.
People high in positive affect tend to be in better health and engage in more social activities, enjoy them more, and have more romantic relationships with greater satisfaction.
Social activity may cause positive affect or vice versa, as people who are more social tend to experience more positive emotions, and when they feel good, they are more likely to seek and act friendly towards others.
High positive affect individuals are generally more pleasant, engaging, and report fewer conflicts with friends and are more accommodating in disagreements with romantic partners.
People high in negative affect are related to psychological stress and various emotional problems, and studies find they report more health complaints.
High negative affect people may genuinely suffer from more health problems or simply complain more, as research shows they report more symptoms, but actual symptoms do not differ between high and low negative affect individuals.
A long-term study on patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis suggests both possibilities might be true, that is, high negative affect individuals genuinely experience more symptoms and also complain more about them.
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Chapter 8 discusses The Trait Approach to emotions, focusing on negative affect and affect intensity
Patients high in negative affect reported more symptoms and severe symptoms than those with lower negative affect, but also had more physical health issues unrelated to negative focus
Question raised as to why negative affect is related to physical health – potential reasons include difficulty dealing with stress, mood affecting health-related behaviors, and health problems causing increased negativity
Students in an emotional study kept daily records of emotions for 84 days
Student A had relatively even emotional responses, with moderate highs and lows, labeled as steady or even-tempered
Student B had more extreme emotional responses, with high highs and low lows, labeled as unpredictable, moody, or having high affect intensity
High-intensity people, whether positive or negative, not only experience emotions more intensely but also tend to be more variable
High- and low-intensity people experience similar activities, but high-intensity people react more strongly to them
In one study, high- and low-intensity people reacted differently to hypothetical situations, with high-intensity people showing more emotional response.
People's beliefs about facing specific problems can significantly impact their adjustment and outcome.
Dispositional optimism is a personality trait characterized by an optimistic approach to life and its challenges.
Individuals high in dispositional optimism tend to achieve more, set higher and prioritized goals, and have better academic performance.
Optimistic individuals are less likely to be discouraged by setbacks and failures, and are more persistent than pessimists.
Studies have shown that cultural backgrounds can influence dispositional optimism, with individualistic cultures fostering more optimistic outlooks than collectivist cultures.
Optimism is related to coping, well-being, and health, and cultural differences in optimism have implications for counselors working with diverse populations.
In stressful situations, dispositional optimism can lead to fewer negative emotions, less anxiety and depression, and better adjustment.
Optimistic individuals, such as Israeli citizens during wartime and caregivers of Alzheimer's patients, have been found to experience less stress and better mental health outcomes.
Optimistic adolescents are less likely to experience academic declines and self-esteem losses during challenging times, such as their parents separating.
Optimistic individuals recovering from health problems and medical procedures, such as breast cancer surgery or rheumatoid arthritis, show better psychological adjustment and less distress.

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Test your understanding of how different explanations for poor performance can impact future achievement. This quiz explores the approach psychologists take when trying to understand achievement and the explanations people generate for their performance.