7 Modern Approaches to Psychology

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Questions and Answers

Which modern approach to psychology emphasizes unconscious drives and conflicts as influences on behavior?

Psychodynamic (correct)

Sociocultural

Humanistic

Cognitive

What does the cognitive approach to psychology primarily study?

Cultural influences on thought

Natural selection

Information processing (correct)

Observable behaviors

Which approach focuses specifically on how behavior and thinking can vary across different cultural contexts?

Humanistic

Sociocultural (correct)

Biological

Evolutionary

The biological perspective in psychology is primarily concerned with which of the following?

The influence of the body and brain on behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which modern approach to psychology highlights the importance of personal growth and fulfillment?

Humanistic Signup and view all the answers

What is the arithmetic average of scores in a distribution called?

Mean Signup and view all the answers

Which measure indicates the middle score in a distribution?

Median Signup and view all the answers

Which statistical term refers to the difference between the highest and lowest scores?

Range Signup and view all the answers

What does a positive skew indicate in a data distribution?

Mean is greater than median Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the likelihood that a result occurred by chance?

Statistical Significance Signup and view all the answers

What does a standard deviation measure in a distribution?

How scores are distributed around the mean Signup and view all the answers

In a modal distribution, what characteristic do the data exhibit?

Two peaks Signup and view all the answers

What is inferred when there is a larger effect size present in two variables?

The relationship is strong Signup and view all the answers

What does hindsight bias refer to in psychological research?

Believing one could have predicted an event after knowing the outcome Signup and view all the answers

Which step follows after forming a hypothesis in the scientific method?

Make a prediction based on the hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of confirmation bias?

The inclination to favor evidence that supports existing beliefs Signup and view all the answers

In what scenario might overconfidence manifest during a research study?

Being overly sure of the accuracy of one's findings before testing them Signup and view all the answers

How does perceiving order in random events affect psychological interpretation?

It leads to misinterpretation of chance occurrences as meaningful patterns. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

To review studies involving human subjects for ethical compliance. Signup and view all the answers

Why is informed consent important in research involving human subjects?

It protects the rights of participants by informing them of the study's nature. Signup and view all the answers

What does voluntary participation signify in a research context?

Participants must be allowed to leave whenever they choose. Signup and view all the answers

What considerations must be taken into account when using deception in research?

Researchers must justify the necessity of deception within the experimental design. Signup and view all the answers

What two main questions guide ethical considerations in animal research?

Does it benefit society? Does it attempt to minimize harm to the animals? Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of a lab experiment?

It has a control group and an experimental group Signup and view all the answers

Which description best characterizes a field experiment?

Takes place in real-life settings with uncontrolled variables Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a quasi experiment from a true experiment?

Quasi experiments consider pre-existing conditions for group allocation Signup and view all the answers

In a lab experiment, which of the following is essential for ensuring validity?

Random assignment of participants to groups Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about control in experiments is accurate?

Lab experiments allow for better control of extraneous variables. Signup and view all the answers

What type of data is collected using quantitative measures?

Numeric data Signup and view all the answers

Which is an example of qualitative measures?

Structured interviews Signup and view all the answers

What is a case study primarily aimed at revealing?

Universal principles Signup and view all the answers

Which observation technique involves the researcher not manipulating or controlling the situation?

Covert participant observation Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'social desirability bias' refer to?

The tendency to answer in ways that will be viewed favorably by others Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a disadvantage of structured interviews?

They often lead to mistaken judgments and false conclusions Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'wording effect' or 'framing effect' primarily concerned with?

The specific word choice in questions Signup and view all the answers

What is NOT considered a research method?

Survey Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the goal of meta-analysis?

To gather and analyze data from existing studies Signup and view all the answers

What type of bias occurs when individuals report experiences deemed socially accepted?

Self-report bias Signup and view all the answers

Which method focuses primarily on describing behavior without interference?

Covert observation Signup and view all the answers

What is one common disadvantage of Likert scales?

They often lead to social desirability bias Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of qualitative research data?

It describes traits or characteristics Signup and view all the answers

In surveys, what does self-report data often reflect?

Participants' perceptions of what is socially acceptable Signup and view all the answers

What does a positive correlation indicate about two variables?

Both variables increase together. Signup and view all the answers

What does the correlation coefficient range from?

-1 to 1 Signup and view all the answers

What is the third variable problem in correlation studies?

Another variable influences both observed variables, leading to a false association. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an illusory correlation?

Those who adopt are more likely to conceive. Signup and view all the answers

Why can't correlation prove causation?

Correlation requires experimental control to establish cause. Signup and view all the answers

What does the null hypothesis assume in an experiment?

No significant impact is expected. Signup and view all the answers

Which best describes an operational definition?

A specific description of how variables are measured. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of replication in research studies?

To confirm that results can be achieved consistently with different groups. Signup and view all the answers

What does a random sample ensure in an experiment?

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. Signup and view all the answers

What is the risk of using convenience samples in research?

They may not accurately represent the entire population. Signup and view all the answers

What does sampling bias refer to in the context of research?

Selecting participants in a manner that does not represent the entire population. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a hypothesis in scientific research?

An educated guess predicting an outcome. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes falsifiability?

The theory must be able to be disproven using empirical evidence. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by random assignment in experiment design?

Randomly placing participants into experimental groups without any criteria. Signup and view all the answers

What is the population in a research study?

The entire group you aim to study and draw conclusions about. Signup and view all the answers

What does generalizability refer to in research outcomes?

The ability to apply findings to populations outside of the study. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of sampling bias?

Certain demographics are over or underrepresented due to the selection method. Signup and view all the answers

How can the process of replication reinforce research conclusions?

By verifying that findings are stable across different studies and contexts. Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean when a hypothesis is said to be testable?

It can be supported or contradicted through experimentation. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a control group in an experiment?

The group that does not receive the experimental treatment Signup and view all the answers

Which procedure ensures that both the experimenters and participants are unaware of who receives the treatment or placebo?

Double-Blind Procedure Signup and view all the answers

What does the independent variable represent in an experiment?

The factor being manipulated by the researcher Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the placebo effect?

A change in performance resulting from participants' expectations Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of control variables in an experiment?

To minimize the impact of confounding variables Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes barriers that can impact the outcome of an experiment aside from the independent variable?

Confounding Variable Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a situation that could generate experimenter bias?

The expectation that a new treatment will fail due to past failures Signup and view all the answers

What is the dependent variable in the example of testing a new vitamin's effect on memory?

The ability to remember information Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Modern Approaches to Psychology

Psychodynamic: Examines behavior stemming from unconscious drives and conflicts.
Sociocultural: Investigates how behavior and thought processes can differ across cultures and various situations.
Cognitive: Analyzes the encoding, processing, storage, and retrieval of information.
Behavioral: Focuses on learned observable responses to stimuli.
Humanistic: Emphasizes personal growth and self-fulfillment, aiming for acceptance and love.
Biological: Explores how biological processes and brain functions influence behaviors.
Evolutionary: Considers how natural selection affects behavior.

Experimenter Bias Concepts

Hindsight Bias: The inclination to believe one would have predicted an outcome after knowing it.
Overconfidence: Overestimating one’s success potential in tasks.
Perceiving Order in Random Events: Cognitive bias towards seeing patterns in random data.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for and favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

Scientific Method Flowchart

Make an observation and pose a question.
Formulate a hypothesis to answer the question.
Make predictions based on that hypothesis.
Conduct an experiment to test predictions.
Analyze results, reporting findings if the hypothesis is correct; if incorrect, revise hypothesis and retest.

Key Research Terms

Null Hypothesis: Assumes no significant effect or relationship.
Falsifiability: The capability of a theory to be disproved via empirical evidence.
Operational Definition: Specifics of how variables in a study will be measured or manipulated.
Replication: Repeating a study in different contexts to validate results.
Population: A comprehensive group from which a study sample is drawn.
Sample: Individuals selected from the population for participation.
Random Sample: Ensures every population member has an equal selection chance.
Convenience Samples: Participants selected based on availability.
Sampling Bias: Non-random selection that misrepresents the population.
Random Assignment: Allocation of samples into experimental or control groups randomly.
Generalizability: The applicability of findings beyond the studied sample.

Statistical Reasoning

Descriptive Statistics: Used to summarize and describe group characteristics; includes measures like mean, median, and mode.
Mean: Average score calculated by dividing the sum of scores by their count.
Median: The middle value dividing higher and lower scores equally.
Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a dataset.
Regression Towards the Mean: High or low extreme scores tend to revert to average upon retesting.
Range: Difference between highest and lowest scores.
Standard Deviation: Measure of score variability from the mean.
Statistical Significance: Likelihood that results are due to an effect rather than chance; typically, a threshold of 5% is used.

Correlational Studies

Correlation: Quantifies the relationship between two variables, indicating predictive capabilities.
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
Third Variable Problem: A separate variable that affects the relationship between two variables.
Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from -1.0 to +1.0, indicating the strength and direction of a relationship.
Illusory Correlation: Misinterpretation of a nonexistent relationship.

Descriptive Research Methods

Quantitative Measures: Collecting and analyzing numerical data, often using scales (e.g., Likert scale).
Qualitative Measures: Descriptive data collection focused on traits and characteristics, such as through structured interviews.
Case Study: In-depth study of an individual or group, revealing broader principles but may lead to subjective conclusions.
Covert Participant Observation: Observing naturally occurring behavior without manipulation.
Surveys: Not a research method itself; collects self-reported data from participants, often subject to social desirability bias.### Social Desirability Bias
Responses can be influenced by a desire to present oneself favorably, leading to misleading data.
Common in surveys, where individuals report socially accepted experiences instead of their true feelings.

Wording Effect (Framing Effect)

The phrasing of questions can significantly affect the answers given.
Example: "Censorship" can elicit a different emotional response compared to "not allowed."
Biased answers arise from the choice of words.

Self-report Bias

Individuals often report experiences based on perceived social norms or expectations.
Can distort research findings as people tend to provide responses they believe are desirable.

Meta-Analysis

A comprehensive technique that combines findings from multiple studies on a similar topic.
Useful in fields like mental health to assess the overall impact on educational achievement.

Ethics in Research

Institutional Review Board (IRB): Established to oversee research involving human subjects and ensure compliance with ethical standards.
Informed Consent/Assent: Participants must receive complete information about the study and the right to withdraw at any time.
Voluntary Participation: Participants must willingly choose to engage in research, with alternatives provided when participation is mandated for a class.
Anonymity/Confidentiality: Researchers must safeguard participants' identities and any identifying information in their reports.
Deception (Use of Confederates): Deception in studies is permissible only if necessary, and researchers must justify its use.
Debriefing: Researchers should clarify the study's purpose and procedures to participants after it concludes.
Animal Research: Questions focus on societal benefits and minimizing done to animals involved in research.

Types of Experiments

Lab Experiment: Controlled environment with clear manipulation of independent and dependent variables, featuring control and experimental groups.
Field Experiment: Conducted in real-world settings with manipulated variables, though extraneous variables can influence the outcome due to the natural environment.
Quasi Experiment: Similar to true experiments but lacks random assignment; pre-existing conditions dictate group allocation.

Experimental Concepts

Experiment (Cause & Effect): Investigates the relationship between manipulated variables and observed effects on behavior.
Experimental vs. Control Group: The experimental group receives treatment, while the control group does not.
Single-Blind Procedure: Participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or placebo.
Double-Blind Procedure: Both participants and researchers are unaware of who gets the treatment versus a placebo to minimize bias.
Experimenter Bias: Researchers’ expectations can inadvertently affect study outcomes.
Placebo and Placebo Effect: Changes in health or behavior may occur due to participants' expectations rather than the treatment itself.
Independent Variable: The variable that is altered or manipulated in an experiment.
Dependent Variable: The outcome that is measured, which may change in response to the independent variable.
Confounding Variable: Other factors that can affect the outcome, complicating the study's findings; these can’t be changed by the researcher.
Control Variables: Factors kept constant to prevent them from influencing the results of the experiment.

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Description

Explore the seven modern approaches to psychology that shape our understanding of human behavior. Each approach offers a unique perspective on the factors influencing thoughts, actions, and emotions. Delve into psychodynamic, sociocultural, cognitive, behavioral, and humanistic perspectives.