7 Modern Approaches to Psychology

Modern Approaches to Psychology

• Psychodynamic: Examines behavior stemming from unconscious drives and conflicts.
• Sociocultural: Investigates how behavior and thought processes can differ across cultures and various situations.
• Cognitive: Analyzes the encoding, processing, storage, and retrieval of information.
• Behavioral: Focuses on learned observable responses to stimuli.
• Humanistic: Emphasizes personal growth and self-fulfillment, aiming for acceptance and love.
• Biological: Explores how biological processes and brain functions influence behaviors.
• Evolutionary: Considers how natural selection affects behavior.

Experimenter Bias Concepts

• Hindsight Bias: The inclination to believe one would have predicted an outcome after knowing it.
• Overconfidence: Overestimating one’s success potential in tasks.
• Perceiving Order in Random Events: Cognitive bias towards seeing patterns in random data.
• Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for and favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

Scientific Method Flowchart

• Make an observation and pose a question.
• Formulate a hypothesis to answer the question.
• Make predictions based on that hypothesis.
• Conduct an experiment to test predictions.
• Analyze results, reporting findings if the hypothesis is correct; if incorrect, revise hypothesis and retest.

Key Research Terms

• Null Hypothesis: Assumes no significant effect or relationship.
• Falsifiability: The capability of a theory to be disproved via empirical evidence.
• Operational Definition: Specifics of how variables in a study will be measured or manipulated.
• Replication: Repeating a study in different contexts to validate results.
• Population: A comprehensive group from which a study sample is drawn.
• Sample: Individuals selected from the population for participation.
• Random Sample: Ensures every population member has an equal selection chance.
• Convenience Samples: Participants selected based on availability.
• Sampling Bias: Non-random selection that misrepresents the population.
• Random Assignment: Allocation of samples into experimental or control groups randomly.
• Generalizability: The applicability of findings beyond the studied sample.

Statistical Reasoning

• Descriptive Statistics: Used to summarize and describe group characteristics; includes measures like mean, median, and mode.
• Mean: Average score calculated by dividing the sum of scores by their count.
• Median: The middle value dividing higher and lower scores equally.
• Mode: The most frequently occurring score in a dataset.
• Regression Towards the Mean: High or low extreme scores tend to revert to average upon retesting.
• Range: Difference between highest and lowest scores.
• Standard Deviation: Measure of score variability from the mean.
• Statistical Significance: Likelihood that results are due to an effect rather than chance; typically, a threshold of 5% is used.

Correlational Studies

• Correlation: Quantifies the relationship between two variables, indicating predictive capabilities.
• Positive Correlation: Both variables increase together.
• Negative Correlation: One variable increases while the other decreases.
• Third Variable Problem: A separate variable that affects the relationship between two variables.
• Correlation Coefficient: Ranges from -1.0 to +1.0, indicating the strength and direction of a relationship.
• Illusory Correlation: Misinterpretation of a nonexistent relationship.

Descriptive Research Methods

• Quantitative Measures: Collecting and analyzing numerical data, often using scales (e.g., Likert scale).
• Qualitative Measures: Descriptive data collection focused on traits and characteristics, such as through structured interviews.
• Case Study: In-depth study of an individual or group, revealing broader principles but may lead to subjective conclusions.
• Covert Participant Observation: Observing naturally occurring behavior without manipulation.
• Surveys: Not a research method itself; collects self-reported data from participants, often subject to social desirability bias.### Social Desirability Bias
• Responses can be influenced by a desire to present oneself favorably, leading to misleading data.
• Common in surveys, where individuals report socially accepted experiences instead of their true feelings.

Wording Effect (Framing Effect)

• The phrasing of questions can significantly affect the answers given.
• Example: "Censorship" can elicit a different emotional response compared to "not allowed."
• Biased answers arise from the choice of words.

Self-report Bias

• Individuals often report experiences based on perceived social norms or expectations.
• Can distort research findings as people tend to provide responses they believe are desirable.

Meta-Analysis

• A comprehensive technique that combines findings from multiple studies on a similar topic.
• Useful in fields like mental health to assess the overall impact on educational achievement.

Ethics in Research

• Institutional Review Board (IRB): Established to oversee research involving human subjects and ensure compliance with ethical standards.
• Informed Consent/Assent: Participants must receive complete information about the study and the right to withdraw at any time.
• Voluntary Participation: Participants must willingly choose to engage in research, with alternatives provided when participation is mandated for a class.
• Anonymity/Confidentiality: Researchers must safeguard participants' identities and any identifying information in their reports.
• Deception (Use of Confederates): Deception in studies is permissible only if necessary, and researchers must justify its use.
• Debriefing: Researchers should clarify the study's purpose and procedures to participants after it concludes.
• Animal Research: Questions focus on societal benefits and minimizing done to animals involved in research.

Types of Experiments

• Lab Experiment: Controlled environment with clear manipulation of independent and dependent variables, featuring control and experimental groups.
• Field Experiment: Conducted in real-world settings with manipulated variables, though extraneous variables can influence the outcome due to the natural environment.
• Quasi Experiment: Similar to true experiments but lacks random assignment; pre-existing conditions dictate group allocation.

Experimental Concepts

• Experiment (Cause & Effect): Investigates the relationship between manipulated variables and observed effects on behavior.
• Experimental vs. Control Group: The experimental group receives treatment, while the control group does not.
• Single-Blind Procedure: Participants do not know whether they are receiving the treatment or placebo.
• Double-Blind Procedure: Both participants and researchers are unaware of who gets the treatment versus a placebo to minimize bias.
• Experimenter Bias: Researchers’ expectations can inadvertently affect study outcomes.
• Placebo and Placebo Effect: Changes in health or behavior may occur due to participants' expectations rather than the treatment itself.
• Independent Variable: The variable that is altered or manipulated in an experiment.
• Dependent Variable: The outcome that is measured, which may change in response to the independent variable.
• Confounding Variable: Other factors that can affect the outcome, complicating the study's findings; these can’t be changed by the researcher.
• Control Variables: Factors kept constant to prevent them from influencing the results of the experiment.