Final A&P

Key Topics for the Final Exam

• Cardiac system will be tested
• Respiratory system will be tested
• Lymphatic/immune system will be tested
• Acid-base balance will be tested
• Blood will be tested
• Urinary system will be tested
• Reproductive system will be tested
• Digestive system will be tested
• Fluid and electrolyte system will be tested

Fluid Distribution

• About 2/3 of total body water is located inside cells and is termed intracellular fluid
• Interstitial fluid surrounds cells

Sodium

• Na is the symbol for sodium

Extracellular Fluid

• Extracellular fluid includes plasma and interstitial fluid

Urine Formation

• The first process in urine formation is filtration

Oxygenated Blood Supply to the Heart

• The heart muscle receives oxygenated blood from the coronary arteries that branch directly from the aorta

Circulatory System Function

• The main role of the circulatory system is transportation

Left Ventricle and Aorta

• When the left ventricle contracts, blood is pushed through a valve to the aorta

Myocardium Thickness

• The myocardium of the left ventricle is thicker than that of the right ventricle, due to working harder

Blood Flow from Left Ventricle

• The left ventricle pumps blood into the aorta to the body

Important Blood Substance for the Heart

• The most important substance in the blood for the heart muscle is O2

Upper Respiratory Tract

• The upper respiratory tract includes nasal sinuses, nasal conchae, and the nasopharynx, but NOT the primary bronchi

Bronchial Tree and Alveoli

• The portions of the bronchial tree that open into the alveoli are the bronchioles

Nasal Cavity Division

• The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides

Epiglottis

• The epiglottis prevents food and water from entering the respiratory passages

Trachea Characteristics

• The trachea is lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
• Tracheal cartilages prevent tracheal collapse and it contains many mucous glands

Lung Anatomy

• The uppermost portion of the lung is called the apex
• The right lung has three lobes

Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system does NOT transport oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Lymphatic vessels: Form a network like blood vessels, have a one-way system, and contain valves
• Lymphatic vessels pick up tissue and fluid, transporting it toward the heart
• They include lymph capillaries and larger vessels, with capillaries being more porous
• Lymph eventually returns to venous blood via larger lymphatic vessels

Hemoglobin

• Iron is the mineral in hemoglobin that binds to oxygen

Platelet Function

• Platelets do NOT dissolve blood clots; they contract after clot formation, initiate clotting, and form temporary patches on injured vessels

Blood Composition

• Red blood cells, or RBCs, are more abundant in the blood than white blood cells (WBCs)

Hemoglobin Function

• Hemoglobin does NOT protect the body against infectious agents; it carries carbon dioxide and oxygen

Water Output

• Water is outputted by the body via exhalation, sweat, urine, and feces

Spleen

• The spleen can hold 500 ml of blood

Immunity

• Having measles and then not getting them again is natural active immunity
• Receiving the flu vaccine results in artificial active immunity

Absorption

• Absorption involves the movement of digestion products, electrolytes, vitamins, and water across the GI tract and into tissues

Magnesium

• Magnesium is important for bone and teeth strength, with a normal range of approximately 0.74-1.03mmol/L
• Magnesium aids muscles, nerves, and the heart, playing a role in controlling blood pressure and blood glucose
• The normal range is approximately 0.74-1.03mmol/L

Anti-Diuretic Hormone (ADH)

• ADH promotes water reabsorption from the kidney tubule back into the blood
• ADH decreases urine volume, which decreases fluid loss, thereby conserving water

Aldosterone

• Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption from the kidneys, increasing water reabsorption to the blood
• The body retains water that would otherwise be lost in urine, thus conserving water

Atrial-Natriuretic Hormone (ANH)

• ANH increases urine volume
• It is released when blood volume is higher than normal and the atrium is stretched
• ANH promotes sodium loss from the blood into the kidneys, increasing water loss, functioning as a diuretic

pH Control Mechanisms

• Chemical and physiological pH control mechanisms influence and regulate the body's pH levels

pH Levels

• A pH less than 7 is acidic
• A pH more than 7 is alkaline
• A pH of 7 is neutral
• Arterial blood pH is 7.4-7.45, and venous blood pH is 7.35-7.37

Natural Active Immunity

• Catching a flu, building resistance, and then coming into contact with the same strain of flu pathogen results in natural active immunity

Artificial Active Immunity

• Obtaining a vaccination for measles provides artificial active immunity

Homeostasis

• Maintaining homeostasis is necessary for good health

Pulmonary Veins

• The pulmonary veins return blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Types of Digestion

• Two types of digestion: mechanical and chemical

Blood Vessels

• Blood vessels that carry blood toward the heart are the veins

Urethra

• The urethra extends from the urinary bladder to the exterior

Sinoatrial (SA) Node

• The SA (sinoatrial) node is the heart's pacemaker

Adipose Tissue

• Adipose tissue contains less water than muscle tissue

Kidney Urine Production

• Kidneys should produce 2000ml/24 hours, with a minimum of 30ml per hour

Blood and Tissue Type

• Blood is considered connective tissue

Filtration Energy

• Blood pressure provides the energy for filtration

Over-hydration

• Over-hydration does affect the heart's pumping action

Uterus

• The opening of the uterus is the cervix

Potassium Imbalance

• Potassium imbalances can affect cardiac function

Potassium

• Potassium's normal range approximates 3.5-5.0mmol/L

Diaphragm During Inhalation

• During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and moves down

Air Entering Nose

• During the inspiratory process of respiration, air entering the nose is filtered, moistened, and warmed

pH Control

• Chemical and physiological pH control mechanisms are two main methods that regulate the body's pH

Blood Elements

• Formed elements of the blood include Thrombocytes, Leukocytes, and Erythrocytes

Blood and Plasma

• The straw-colored, watery fluid part of the blood, with formed elements suspended in it, is the plasma

Urethra Comparisons

• The urethra has different lengths in males and females

Blood Function

• Blood transports body heat, nutrients, and wastes, and defends against pathogens/toxins

Flu Vaccine

• The flu vaccine is an example of artificial active immunity

Acids and pH

• Acid has a pH of less than 7

Alkaline

• Alkaline has a pH of more than 7

Neutral pH

• Neutral has a pH of 7

Antivenom

• Antivenom for snake bites exemplifies natural passive immunity

Passive Immunity

• Immunity passed from mother to infant via breast milk is artificial passive immunity

Chicken Pox Virus

• Getting chickenpox as a child, developing immunity, and then having resistance exemplifies natural active immunity

Windpipe

• The windpipe is the trachea

Blood Circulation

• When blood is pumped from the left ventricle of the heart to all parts of the body, the process is called systemic circulation

Neutrophils

• Neutrophils are white blood cells (WBCs) that defend the body against pathogens

Right Ventricle

• The right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary artery to the lungs

Measurement of pH

• pH measures hydrogen ion concentration in a solution

Kidney Structure

• The kidney layer structure from outer to inner is: renal capsule, renal cortex, renal medulla

Prostate Gland

• The prostate gland encircles the urethra

Nasal Septum

• The nasal septum divides the nasal cavity into right and left sides

Hemoglobin Functions

• Hemoglobin carries oxygen and carbon dioxide

Female Genital Organs

• The term vulva refers to the female genital organs

WBCs Function

• Neutrophils are the WBCs that attack in response to parasitic infections

Body Fluids

• Pleural fluid between pleural membranes prevents friction

Urine Formation

• Filtration is the first process in urine formation

Buffers

• Buffers are compounds that weaken or neutralize acids and bases in the blood

Blood Supply

• Coronary arteries provide direct blood supply and oxygen to the myocardium

Dehydration

• Dehydration is caused by too little fluid intake, excessive diarrhea, and excessive emesis (vomiting)

Breast Milk Immunity

• Immunity passed from mom to baby via breastmilk is an example of artificial passive immunity

Role of Mucus

• Mucus in the nasal cavity traps incoming bacteria and moistens the air

Body Water

• 2/3 of the total body water is found within cells (intracellular fluid)

Larynx

• The voice box is the larynx

Cartilage

• The trachea is reinforced with D-shaped cartilage

Alveoli

• Alveoli are the actual sites of gas exchange in the lungs

Roles of ADH, ANH, and Aldosterone

• ADH promotes water reabsorption from the kidney tubule to the blood, decreasing urine volume and fluid loss and is a water-conserving hormone
• ANH increases urine volume and promotes sodium loss from the blood to kidneys and is a water-loss hormone or diuretic
• Aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption from the kidneys, leading to increased water retention in the body, which is considered a water-conserving hormone