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Stones

• Stone, a fundamental building material with durability, availability, and adaptability, has been used throughout human history
• The art of building stone walls for protection dates back to prehistoric times.
• The earliest remaining stone buildings were built in Egypt and Mesopotamia about 5,000 years ago.
• The stone industry declined after World War I due to the rise of concrete.
• There are pre-historic remnants of temples made from sandstone in Egypt and limestone in Greece and India.
• Granite was used at Machu Picchu in Peru.
• Pre-historic cultures used post and lintel construction, and the earliest stone arches appeared over 5,000 years ago in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq).
• Romans used limestone in arch construction for buildings and bridges more than 2,000 years ago.
• Stones are used ancient pyramids, the Parthenon, Roman aqueducts, Gothic cathedrals, the Great Wall of China and Angkor Wat.
• Stone is used in construction, including blocks for walls, slabs, roofing slates, aggregate for concrete, terrazzo, mortars, plasters, and rendering.
• Stone is used for granules for surfacing bituminous felts, powders for extending paint, and rock wool for insulation.

Rock Types and Rock Cycle

• There are three major groups of rocks differentiated by their origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

Types of Stones

• Igneous stones formed from the cooling of magmas include granite, basalt, and mica.
• Sedimentary stones formed due to weathering include sandstone and limestone.
• Metamorphic stones formed under pressure include slates, marble, and quartzes.

Igneous Stones

• Igneous stones are natural rocks formed from cooling magma or lava.
• This forms a diverse range of textures and compositions, classifying igneous stones as intrusive (plutonic) and extrusive (volcanic).
• Stones formed by cooling molten magma include granite, basalt, and mica, and do not contain fossils or shells.
• The structure of igneous stone depends on how fast the stones are cooled.
• Extrusive stones are cooled rapidly, are fine grained, and no crystalline. Basalt is an example.
• Intrusive stones cooled slowly, yielding medium-sized crystalline structures. Granite is an example.

Granite

• Granite is a durable building stone, known for its hardness and durability.
• It is a deep-seated igneous rock, which provides crystalline structure and fine to coarse grain.
• The stone is extremely precious because of its crushing strength.
• Granite can tolerate extreme weathering, and is ideal for use in construction.
• Granite cuts into slabs and can be polished for stone-facing slabs and floor slabs.
• It has a low fire resistance, is resistant to acidic liquids, and suitable for kitchen countertops.

Advantages of Granite

• Granite is known for its durability, toughness, and erosion resistance.
• It is suitable as a floor covering and can survive harsh weather due to its hardness.
• Granite offers a sophisticated appearance with high impact resistance.

Disadvantages of Granite

• Granite is expensive with high installation costs, and its installation is time-consuming because of the stone mortaring process and mortar adhesion.
• In situations with x-ray or gamma radiation or magnetic fields, radioactive wave radiation can be increased.

Basalt

• Basalt is known as white stones, green stones or blue basalt
• This stone is strong, harsh and nice as well as nasty.
• Basalt has a strong compressive strength between 150 and 190 MPA.
• Basalt stone may be black to dark grey, an element making house design more popular.

Advantages of Basalt

• Basalt stones is lightweight, rough and tough
• It provides good insulation and absorbs sound efficiently.
• Using this stones contributes to heat preservation and are mostly used under trains.
• They are enviromentally friendly stones.

Disadvantages of Basalt

• Basalt stone is not easily workable

How To use Basalt

• Basalt is used for construction purposes in many areas.
• Railway ballast
• Aggregate for concrete
• Road metals
• Pavement
• Dams and river walls

Sedimentary Stones

• Sedimentary stones are formed from layers of tiny particles like sand, shells, dinosaur bones, compressed and cemented over millions of years in windswept deserts and dense forests.
• Sedimentary Stones are formed particles of older rocks that were broken down by water, wind, ice, or from accumulation of organic origin.
• Sediments carried by water and sometimes by winds, causing particles to lay horizontally will produce natural grain.
• Composition changes create layers of differing character including soft beds.
• Types of sedimentary rock include sandstone, travertine, and limestone.

Sandstone

• Sandstone is a multipurpose building material with warm colors and intricate patterns, workable for detailed carvings, durable, and with medium hardness.
• It consists of fine or coarse particles of quartz.
• The best sandstones are extremely durable but may become dirty
• Hard and durable fine-grained sandstones are called York stones, suitable for paving.
• The Pyramids of Giza are constructed from sandstone blocks.
• The Sydney Opera House is clad in sandstone panels.
• The Houses of Parliament in London have sandstone carvings.

Limestone

• Limestone is a sedimentary rock formed over millions of years from the compacted remains of marine organisms, like shells and coral, accumulated on the seabed.
• Its definition can be broken down into two key aspects: formation and the deposit in lakes or seas.
• Limestone is white or off white, but other ingredients often color the stone cream, yellow, brown, red grey and almost black.
• Limestones are being employed in a thickness of 25 mm as permanent shuttering on precast concrete wall slabs.
• Limestone is used for cladding and facades, flooring and interior design, historical monuments and sculptures, and infrastructure and construction.

Metamorphic Stones

• Metamorphic stones are types of rock formed through the transformation of existing rock types, in a process known as metamorphism, which means "change in form".
• This transformation occurs under conditions of high pressure, high temperature, or both, deep within the Earth's crust.
• This process alters the mineral composition and structure of the original rock, resulting in a new type of rock with distinct physical and chemical properties.
• These consist of older stones which have been subjected to immense heat and pressure causing structural change.
• Types of metamorphic rocks include slate, quartzite, and marble.

Marble

• Marble, from limestone or dolomite, forms under high pressure and temperature, causing the recrystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains.

• The recrystallization process gives marble characteristic veining with a variety of colors.

• It is widely used in construction and architecture for its elegance, and used for flooring, wall cladding, countertops, and sculptures.

• However, susceptibility to acid rain and weathering makes it less suitable for exterior applications in polluted or harsh climates.

• True marbles is crystalline, and is very finely crystalline and ideal for carved details.

• Marbles are generally very hard, dense and resitant to abrasion.

• Like granite, marble takes an excellent self polish which greatly enhances its appearance

• Unlike granite marble is attacked by acids and a polished surface is not retained for very long externally in polluted atmosphere.

• It is used as cladding material, flooring and interior decoration. .

Slate

• Slate, formed from the low-grade metamorphism of shale, clay, or volcanic ash, is known for its fine grain, foliation, and durability.
• It splits into thin, stable sheets, making the stone used for roofing, flooring, and wall cladding.
• Slate's resistance to weathering and low water absorption rate makes it suitable for outdoor use as well.
• Other metamorphic stones include quartzite (transformed from quartz sandstone) and schist (formed from mudstone or shale), and are in various applications, from decorative to structural, due to their strength, durability, and aesthetic appeal.

Quartzite

• Quartzites contains about 96 percent silica, is harder even than granite, and it is extremely durable.
• Quartzite is imported from Norway, Sweden, and South Africa.
• Quartzite Colors include grey, green and gold.
• Quartzite is for walls tiles, flooring, and external paving.

Production of Building Stone

• The production of natural stone involves quarrying, transportation, processing, surface treatment, edge shaping and customization, quality control, and packaging and shipping.
• Quarrying involves extraction the stone from a quarry.
• Methods of quarrying vary depending on the type of stone and the depth at which it is located and uses machines with Dimont.
• Common techniques include drilling, blasting, and cutting using diamond, wire, saws.
• Transportation: rough stone blocks from a quarry are transported to processing facilities.
• This is done using heavy-duty trucks and specialized equipment for loading and unloading
• At processing facilities the stones are cut into slabs or tiles using large saws.
• Water is used during cutting to reduce dust and prolong the life of cutting tools.
• Once cut into the shape the stone may undergo polishing, honing, flaming, bush hammering, or sandblasting,
• In this stage, the stone is further refined to meet specific design requirements.
• Advanced CNC machinery is often used for this, which allows for high precision and intricate designs.
• Throughout the production process it is essential to check for cracks, uniformity in thickness, color consistency, and other quality parameters.
• The final step involves carefully packaging the fragile stone for shipping on wooden pallets or wooden crates.
• Stone installation involves laying the stone tiles or slabs in their final location, which can be a complex process requiring skilled craftsmanship, especially for intricate designs or large, heavy pieces.

Stones as Structural Elements

• Stone is for load-bearing walls in historical structures, including ancient fortresses, castles, and temples.
• Arches and vaults are classic structural elements, can distribute loads efficiently, and are found in bridges, aqueducts, cathedrals, and buildings.
• Stones are also used for Columns and Pillars, foundation, retaining walls, domes, bridges, pavement, and structural art.

Aggregates

• Aggregate, is a building material used for mixing with cement, bitumen, lime, gypsum, or other adhesive to form concrete or mortar.

• The aggregate gives volume, stability, resistance to wear or erosion, and other desired physical properties to the finished product.

• Commonly used aggregates include sand, crushed or broken stone and gravel.

• The inert materials that are mixed in fixed proportions with a binding material to produce concrete, and acts as fillers or volume increasing components.

• Aggregates are responsible for the strength, hardness, and durability of the concrete.

• Concrete is basically a mixture of two parts:

  • Paste Portland cement, water, and air.
  • Aggregate sand, gravel, crushed stone.

• Aggregates compose 60 to 80% of concrete volume.

• Sand known as fine aggregates.

• Gravel known as coarse aggregates.

• All aggregates are essentially free of silt and/or organic matter.

• Aggregate is cheaper than cement impacting greater volume, stability, and durability to the concrete

• Aggregate provides bulk to the concrete which increases the mix density/

Uses of Aggregates in Concrete Mixtures

• Filler Material
• Dimensional Stability
• Strength and Stiffness
• Provide Economy
• Make the Concrete Denser

Aggregates affect these properties of concrete:

• Strength
• Durability
• Structural Performance
• Overall Cost

Aggregates have these functions in concrete:

• Provide a mass of particles suitable to resist applied loads & better durability than cement paste alone
• Provide a cheap filler for cementing material
• Reduce volume changes from setting & hardening and from moisture changes during drying

Concrete

• The mineral character of aggregate affects a concrete's strength, durability, and elasticity.
• The surface characteristics of aggregate affects fresh mass' workability.
• The grading of aggregate affects the density, strength, and cost of concrete.

Mechanical Properties of Aggregates:

• Strength
• Hardness
• Toughness
• Durability
• Porosity
• Water Absorption

Testing Strength of Aggregates

• Aggregate should be stronger than concrete in order to be used as a construction aggregate
• Rock aggregate is in range of 45 to 550 N/mm2.
• Concrete is generally between 15-50 N/mm2.
• Average of crushing strength of aggregates should be 200N/mm2.
• Crushing test used to test and shows the strength of aggregates.
• crushing value is the relative measure of resistance of an aggregate under gradually applied compressive loads.
• If the aggregate crushing value is less than 10, means an exceptionally strong aggregate, Whereas crushing value of 35 and above means a weak aggregate.
• Lower crushing value leads to higher crushing strength which means vice versa

Crushing Test:

• Oven dry the aggregates.
• Sieve the passing parts, and collect all partibles that are passing (12.5 mm) and retained (10mm)
• The aggregate sample should be filled (3 layers) each layer is (25 strokes using tamping rod)
• Apply load at a uniform rate
• Sieve all again, and Measure the material passing through the sieve (sieve) again
• Calculate the specimen crushing
• Aggregate Crushing value: (W2 / W) * 100.

Where

• W = weight of dry sample
• W2 = Weight of fraction passing through the sieve after testing
• For a good quality aggregate, (low) crushing strength value

Testing Hardness of Aggregates.

• Hardness of aggregates: Ability to withstand wear or applied pressure.
• This hardness depends on the rock type
• Test available = abrasion test. (The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test) find the % of wear/ abrasion for the material. (find % wear due to abrasion between the aggregate and the steel balls, and the abrasive charge). Higher hardness = Higher quality

Testing Toughness of Aggregates.

• Toughness of aggregates: Resistance of aggregate to failure by any impact. (sudden loading/ impact loading = measure the toughness).
• This is determined by the aggregate impact test

Testing Durability of Aggregates.

• Durability/soundness of aggregate: Ability to withstand external / internal and damaging attack
• This determined by the Soundness test

Testing Porosity of Aggregates.

• Porosity of aggregates: Pores of various sizes
• Aggregates will (absorb) water if dry, but releases when wet in concrete mix.
• The quality rate depends on the water mount
• 75% is needed in porosity as the overall percentage

Classification of Aggregate

• Petrological Characteristics
• Grain Size.
• Aggregate Weight.
• Particle shape, texture. Based on - ASTM ###Classification of Aggregate/Characteristics
• (ASTM) standards are the base.
• Natural Aggregates
• Man made Aggregates are the same as (recyclable aggregate).
• Fine Aggregates / Course Aggregates based on grain size

###Classifications based on Characteristics:

• Weight ( normal/ heavy)
• Surface texture
  • Bulky ( flaky).
• Surface texture
  • Rough, and smooth.

According to Petrological Characteristics

• Natural aggregate particles originally formed as part of a larger mass.
• Chemicals properties are used in the parent mass
• Properties consist of properties absent particle shape and size, surface texture, and absorption.
  • Igneous rocks with molten lava = (granite)
  • Sedimentary rocks with obtained weathering limestone. (erosion) from weathering and solution
  • Metamorphic rocks in either and high pressure = (marble)

Naturally occurring aggregation consistuents include.

• (Igneous rocks) granite, basalt
• (Sedimentary/eroded rocks) Sandstone,limestone,shale
• (Metamorphic rocks - changed) Marble,slate
• Artificial aggregates are obtained either as a by-product or by a special manufacturing process such as heating.

Recycled Aggregate

• Aggregate for sources that help from -Energy and material in building design from recycled projects; building with concrete and more structures
• (1) break up and, remove old concrete
• (2) break it up in crushers. (secondary crushers)
• (3) remove reinforcing steel and (embed-bed items)/ other embedded items
• (4) sort grading/ wash
• (5) stockpile coarse/ aggregate- with fine

Characteristics of Grian Size:

• 2 groups-Fine Aggregate, Course aggregate.
• Fine particle ( clay sand, soil = are fine particle material)
• -- (measured up 4.75)
  • Course aggregate = measure to anything + 4.5mm.
  • Sieve Analysis important component.
    • Sieve analysis. - shaking the sample through a set of sieves that have (progressivel) smaller.
    • Sieves are the test, to classify material.
    • ( 2 sieves.) " US Sieves, and ASTM sieves = used for concrete as well
    • Analysis/ the sieving process of the soil, using a sieving system of smaller openings in a set form.

Analyzing Test Results for a Sieve Analysis

• Test #200 is the smalled opening!

• Everything passing to the sieve means its fine.

• All particles / fine aggregates. pass through 4.75mm(No.4) sieve.

• all aggretare more high used is: sand crushed stone, ash...

• all Course aggregare are retained 4.75mm

• It/ the material mainly includes gravel and crushed stones

• ASTM sieve used to show 100mm

• A decrease on the (Sieve # decrease) is equal to the Soil Particle size decrease

More Sieve Analysis Definitions/ information

• Sieve = The procedure/a process that consists passing through 1 aggregate.

• Passing the material in each soil and its progressing to the smallest to have a small opening.

• The smaller size will allow the particles to be smaller and that that material goes through those tiny cracks. -The smallest sieve is : the 200 and 0.75mm

• In making concrete with find/corase aggregates, the goal is = concrete/ made

• All material to fall inside voids.

• Good Concrete mix: -

  • Fine 60 to 75% to the concrete volume used
  • 78 to 85 = the mass, concrete freshly mixed
  • And hardened materials also can be =
  • Fine. (<4.75mm)= use natural sand and stone

• Course 4.74 / < 37.5 = combo in ( gravel/ and crushed stone )

• In classication of aggregates, there is specific gravity

  • and Long span

• Normal wet aggregate, is gravel sand crushed stone -2.8. < Gs < 2.4 Light wet aggregate. expanded perlite GS less than 2.4 For a good requirement for good aggregate = The best quality aggregate = "dry" Need weight and shape of particle and texture.

• Petrology texture = shape and size from the outside

Good Aggregates Should

• It must be clean and free from " lumps" organic components.
• It/ The material should be "Strong" and have high / medium hardness
• it should not react with cement after the mixing process- the cement type should be dry.

Classification System for Determining Aggregates

• shape, external component.

• 3 shapes. -bulky,

• flaky,

• needle shape- are very little

• Bulky includes- Angular, sub agular, Sub, roundees is camines by water mostly and with wind.

• The "BOND" can be determined or is determined with cement with smoothness.

  • rough better, for strength in structure;

• A rough side is = " STRONG".

• More round-ness = The more works, better relationship of aggregate with strength.

• strength = Angular; and in a rough texutre. = the most strength.

• Angular should be a very " thick mix"; and more restiant to weather.

Grading Aggregates

• The size of an aggregate is from it its gradatiton • Coarse and fine aggregates to be used for making concrete should be well graded. • Gradation means the particle size distribution of aggregates • Test for grading of aggregates is carried out using the sieve analysis method.

More Aggregate and Cement Relationships

• grading effects. = will need more cement or will have more water requirements the content can increases.
• aggregates has " voids" inside particles to increase agularly.
• And will not show more more elongated particles. such mix can cause the mix a greater strength and with a
• Aggregates can cause volume diagrams or voids that create high cement which affect overall strength.