19th Century Global Transformations

W.E.B. Du Bois's idea that African Americans should reject assimilation into white American society and instead connect with people of color across the globe, particularly those in colonized nations.

A system created after World War I that mandated former German and Ottoman territories to be administered by League of Nations members, often with the expectation of eventual independence.

A political philosophy emphasizing national unity, often through authoritarian rule, and promoting a strong, centralized state.

The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic downturn that lasted from 1929 to the late 1930s. It began after a major stock market crash in the United States, known as the Wall Street Crash of 1929.

The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act was a law passed by the United States Congress in 1930 that raised tariffs on over 20,000 imported goods. It was intended to protect American jobs and businesses from foreign competition, but is often seen as a contributing factor to the Great Depression.

A policy of economic self-sufficiency, often pursued by nations seeking to reduce dependence on foreign trade and avoid the impacts of globalization.

The Holocaust was the genocide of European Jews during World War II. It was orchestrated primarily by Nazi Germany, with the collaboration of local authorities and collaborators in occupied territories.

The Tripartite Pact was a military alliance signed by Germany, Italy, and Japan in 1940. It formalized their cooperation and paved the way for their joint aggression during World War II.

The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension—after World War II between the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies. It was primarily waged on the political, economic, and propaganda fronts.

The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked with maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, promoting international cooperation, and achieving international concord.

The 1947-1948 Civil War in Palestine involved armed conflicts between Jewish Zionist militias and Arab Palestinian forces, which ultimately led to the establishment of the state of Israel in 1948.

The Bengal Famine of 1943 was a major famine that occurred in the Bengal region of British India during World War II. It resulted in an estimated 2-3 million deaths.

The Nansen passport was a travel document created in 1922 to help stateless persons, primarily refugees from the Russian Revolution and World War I, to travel and obtain basic rights.

The Mukden Incident was a staged attack by Japanese military forces on a railway in Manchuria, China, in 1931. It was used as a pretext for the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, a major turning point towards Japanese expansionism.

The growth of Palestinian national consciousness refers to the increasing awareness and desire for self-determination among Palestinians in response to British rule and Zionist immigration. This growing feeling of unity and shared identity emerged in the 1920s and became more pronounced in the context of conflict and displacement faced by Palestinians during the 1930s.

During the late 1700s and early 1800s, Western European economies, particularly those of Britain and North America, experienced a remarkable surge in wealth and technological advancement, setting the stage for a divergence from the rest of the world.

A political philosophy emphasizing individual rights, limited government intervention in the economy, and democratic principles. This ideology promoted free trade, individual liberties, and a strong emphasis on the "invisible hand" of the market.

An economic system where the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit. The idea was to allow individuals to freely compete in a market driven by supply and demand, with minimal government intervention.

Britain's economic growth in the early 1800s was fueled by a dramatic increase in coal production (14 times greater), sugar imports (11 times greater), and cotton imports (20 times greater), further widening the gap between Britain and other nations.

During the 19th century, Britain expanded its colonial holdings in South Africa, leveraging an immense amount of land (20-30 million "ghost acres") beyond its own arable land, furthering its economic and political dominance.

The First Opium War (1839-1842) was a conflict between China and Western powers, particularly Britain, which sought to impose upon China unfair trade agreements, undermining Chinese sovereignty. This event demonstrated the military superiority of Western nations, leading to a period of unequal treaties and foreign influence.

In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire, in response to Western pressure, attempted to modernize its military and educational system. This series of reforms, however, failed to prevent the declining power and influence of the Ottoman Empire.

Britain's embrace of free trade during the 1840s and 1850s further extended its global influence, as it benefited from the free flow of goods and services across the world, strengthening its economic dominance.

The Perry Expeditions (1853-1854) were a series of diplomatic missions launched by the United States to Japan, forcing the island nation to open its ports to foreign trade. This marked the end of Japan's centuries-long isolationist policy, opening the door to Western influence and modernization.

In response to growing Western influence, China began to modernize its military and adopt Western technology during the 1860s. This movement aimed to strengthen China's position against foreign powers and improve its domestic infrastructure.

The Meiji Restoration (1868) marked a pivotal moment in Japanese history, as it revitalized the imperial rule and led to a rapid modernization of Japan. By embracing Western technology and ideas, Japan rapidly industrialized and emerged as a powerful nation on the global stage.

The late 19th century witnessed a second Industrial Revolution, characterized by advancements in steel production, electricity, and internal combustion engines. This spurred rapid economic growth and further expanded the gap between industrialized nations and those lagging behind.

Germany, unified as a nation-state and empire in 1871, became a major player in the global power dynamics, competing with other European powers for resources and influence. This led to increased tensions and competition for colonial territories.

The Chinese Exclusion Act, passed by the United States in 1882, restricted the immigration of Chinese workers, a reflection of the rising tide of xenophobia and racial prejudice prevalent in the late 19th century.

The Berlin Conference (1884-1885) was a gathering of European powers to divide Africa among themselves, signifying the peak of European imperialism and demonstrating cooperation among these powers in managing colonial interests. This event led to the colonization and exploitation of Africa by European powers.

To assert its presence in the world, Germany embarked on a policy of aggressive foreign policy known as "Weltpolitik", seeking to challenge established powers and expand its own empire. This led to increased tensions and rivalry with other European powers, particularly Britain.

Germany's ambitious naval build-up, inspired by Alfred Thayer Mahan's theories on sea power dominance, initiated a naval arms race with Britain. This fierce competition for naval superiority increased tensions and contributed to the escalating rivalry between the two nations.