18th Century European Dynasties and Shifts

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Questions and Answers

Which dynasty was ruling in Austria during the 18th century?

Romanovs

Habsburg (correct)

Hohenzollern

Bourbons

What was a key characteristic of the Enlightenment in the 18th century?

A focus on traditional religious beliefs

Less focus on religion and shifts in moral thought (correct)

Increased interest in consumerism

The continuation of the torture as judicial punishment

Which of the following was NOT a limit placed on kings during the 18th century?

Divine Right

Fundamental Laws

Absolute Autonomy (correct)

Salic Law

What was a significant shift in monarchical power during the 18th century?

Focus shifted from military conflicts with nobles to bureaucratic establishment Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the main theme addressed in the 18th century?

The development of capitalism and rise of consumerism Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the Vingtieme tax?

To require everyone to pay 1/20th of their income Signup and view all the answers

Which philosopher is noted for his work concerning women and the Enlightenment?

Condorcet Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant outcome of the political crisis in France between 1787-1789?

Meeting of the Estates General Signup and view all the answers

How did the Enlightenment challenge the old regime?

By promoting concepts of natural rights and liberty Signup and view all the answers

What role did the Parlements play during the Enlightenment?

Acting as places that reflected social injustices Signup and view all the answers

Which historical figure is associated with the idea of 'laissez-faire' in economics?

Quesnay Signup and view all the answers

What issue did the Assembly of Notables address in 1787?

Financial and political problems facing the monarchy Signup and view all the answers

What was a key factor in the establishment of centralized monarchical power in France during the late 16th century?

The Edict of Nantes Signup and view all the answers

Which factor significantly contributed to the financial crisis in 18th-century France?

Rising costs of military operations Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following explains the primary role of the Estates General in France?

Each estate received one vote, regardless of size. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'scientific racism' refer to in the context of post-modern critiques of the Enlightenment?

Using science to justify racial hierarchies Signup and view all the answers

What societal change characterized the 18th century in relation to employment?

An increase in job opportunities, particularly for peasants Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant impact of the War of the Spanish Succession on France?

Marked the rise of Britain as a major power Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of 'Absolutism' as mentioned in the context?

The concentration of power in the hands of the central government. Signup and view all the answers

What characterized the role of nobles in 18th century French society?

Their roles combined military, administrative, and judicial functions. Signup and view all the answers

What was one major consequence of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685?

It intensified religious conflicts within France. Signup and view all the answers

Which political movement characterized the 17th century opposition against the monarchy in France?

The Fronde Signup and view all the answers

How did the socio-political structure of France change with the rise of the bourgeoisie in the 17th and 18th centuries?

They became integral members of the administrative class. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary reason nobles surrounded themselves with servants during the era?

To show social superiority Signup and view all the answers

Which ordinance restricted military service to those with four noble bloodlines?

Segur Ordinance Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the bourgeoisie in the context of the French Revolution?

Wealth without agricultural ties Signup and view all the answers

Which group is NOT considered a type of bourgeois?

Smuggling cartels Signup and view all the answers

What major risk was associated with the slave trade during this period?

Revolts and resistance Signup and view all the answers

Which revolution leader is most notably associated with the slave rebellion in Saint Domingue?

Toussaint L'Ouverture Signup and view all the answers

Which crop is mentioned as a new introduction during the agricultural revolution?

Potato Signup and view all the answers

How did the Enlightenment thinkers view the role of government?

To enable intelligent and humane administration Signup and view all the answers

What was a common financial burden on the peasantry during this time?

Direct and indirect taxation Signup and view all the answers

In the context of social structure, what does 'class consciousness' refer to?

Awareness of social positioning within classes Signup and view all the answers

What role did the public sphere play in the Enlightenment?

It allowed for open public discourse on issues Signup and view all the answers

What form of governance did some historians argue existed in the French kingdom?

Constitutional monarchy with significant noble influence Signup and view all the answers

What was a key aspect of feudal obligations in the context of peasantry?

Service in exchange for protection Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an important agricultural innovation during the Agricultural Revolution?

Use of advanced breeding techniques Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

18th Century Dynasties

Major European dynasties of the 18th century included Austria (Habsburg), France (Bourbon), Prussia (Hohenzollern), and Russia (Romanov).

Major Shifts in the 18th Century

Consumerism: A shift from poverty-level living in the early 1700s to increased material consumption and purchases.
Enlightenment: A period of intellectual and philosophical change, challenging religious dogma and promoting alternative views of justice. Torture became part of the judicial process at the start of the century.
Expansion of War: The 18th century saw several significant conflicts.
Rise of Monarchical Power: Monarchs in Europe consolidated their power, often through bureaucratic structures, challenging the influence of the nobility.

Doctrines of Kingship

King as Father: The king was viewed as the head of a family, expected to provide for and protect his subjects.
Analogy of the Human Body: Kingship was metaphorically linked to the function of organs and systems in the human body, reinforcing a sense of a functioning, integrated societal structure.
Feudal Hierarchy: The legacy of medieval societal hierarchies remained present in some ways.
Divine Right: The right to rule was understood as divinely ordained, asserting the king's authority as coming directly from God.

Limits on Kings

Fundamental Laws: There were existing legal frameworks that constrained royal power.
Salic Law: Laws defining the succession to the monarchy often limited or excluded women from the throne.
Christian King: Kings were expected to adhere to the Christian faith.
Just King: The concept of a "just" king was debated, addressing concerns over the legitimacy of rule if a king acted unjustly.
Age of 13: Reaching the age of 13 marked the end of minority status for a monarch, granting full power.

Themes

Capitalism and Consumerism: Economic and social factors were linked.
Agrarian vs. Atlantic Economy: Contrasting economic realities.
Social Groups: The 18th century witnessed complex social dynamics, including nobles, bourgeoisie, peasantry, artisans, women, and families.
The Enlightenment: Philosophical ideas and their influence on societal structures.
State Building: Changes in state structure in France, leading to political conflicts.
Comparisons with other countries: Examining conditions in Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
French Revolution: Anticipation of major upheaval.

Guarantees for Royal Loyalty

Inner Conscience: The king's internal sense of righteousness was vital for ensuring just rule, justifying loyalty.
Estates-General (3 Estates): Representatives of the nation, with each estate having one vote in governance.
Estate 1: Clergy
Estate 2: Nobility (all nobles in France)
Estate 3: Commoners

Evolution of Monarchial Power (17th Century)

Reformation and Counter-Reformation: Religious conflicts influenced the development of monarchical authority.
French Wars of Religion (1562-1589): Religious conflict and ambitions of powerful families complicated the exercise of royal power.
Three Weak Kings: Francis II, Charles IX, and Henri III (France).

Ending the Wars of Religion

Politiques: Those who advocated for religious toleration played significant roles.
Henri IV: Established centralized royal power in France. Several assassination attempts were made against the king.
Edict of Nantes (1598): Decreed religious tolerance in France.

Institutional Features of Absolutist Governments

Standing Army: Permanent military forces were crucial to royal power.
Developed Fiscal Apparatus: Efficient tax collection systems were needed.
Bureaucracy of Venal Office-Holders: Government officials were sometimes appointed based on purchase of positions rather than merit.
Specialized Departments: Organizing government into specialized areas facilitated administration.
Corps of Salaried Intendants: Officials representing the king's authority in regions.

Louis XIII (1610-1643)

Scrofula: Touched those affected, aiming to heal.

Seventeenth-Century Opposition

Protestants: Conflict over religious toleration.
Great Nobles: Power struggles with the monarchy.

Louis XIV (1661-1715)

France as a major power: Height of French power in Europe.
Versailles: The extravagant palace symbolising Louis XIV's power.
Merciless Taxation (Peasants): High taxes on the peasantry.
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685): Ended religious toleration.

Absolutism

Contested Term: Historians and contemporaries had often different views on the concept of absolute monarchy.

Challenges to 18th Century Monarchical Government

Waging Wars: Needed powerful military and financial resources.
Reform: Dealing with inefficiency and unrest.
Powerful Interest Groups: Nobility, clergy, and others.
Public Opinion: Maintaining legitimacy and trust.

18th Century Wars

A series of significant European wars, including the War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, Seven Years' War, American Revolutionary War, and Napoleonic Wars. Each had significant political outcomes.

Big Picture Shifts in 18th Century

Economic Growth: More career opportunities emerged in a flourishing economy.
Religious Change: New religious ideas.
Literacy: Spread of literacy influenced culture.
Family Structures: Family patterns evolved.
Sociability: Changing social interactions.
Population Growth: Demographic trends played a role in economic and social change.

Social Groups: Social groups were influenced by perceptions and external factors.
Society of Orders: Societal structure based on hierarchy and privilege.

Who Were the Nobles?

France: Noble class and their characteristics in France
Comparisons (Europe): Comparison across European countries.
What Identifies Nobles: Status, privilege, and heredity were key traits.
Roles in 18th Century Society: Noble roles in service, administration, and politics.

Privilege of Nobles

Status: Social distinctions and rights.
Tax Exemptions: Nobles were often exempt from direct taxes.
Special Judicial Treatment: Nobles had different legal processes regarding laws and punishments.
Specialized Inheritance Laws: Legal systems preserved noble family assets.
Torture (Exemption): Nobility often had exemption from the use of torture.

Recruitment- Wealth

New Men (Nobility): The rise of merchant and commercial nobility to create a new nobility rank.
Wealth: Means that nobles had to maintain or retain their wealth.

Culture

Literacy: Ability to read and write developed across all classes.
Politeness: Developments in polite society and manners.

Explanations for Hostility to Nobles During the French Revolution

Enlightenment Ideas: Principles of merit and utility.
Aristocratic Reaction: Noble resistance to change. (segregation).
Estates-General Dynamics: Political struggles.

Bourgeoisie

Town Dwellers: Urban inhabitants.
Prosperity: Bourgeoisie often saw economic success.
Eighteenth-Century Meaning: The meaning and definition of bourgeoisie evolved during this period.
Types of Bourgeois: Different subgroups within the bourgeois class.

Aspirations of the Bourgeoisie

Wealth: Wealth was a major goal.
Status: Seeking social elevation.
Honor: Societal recognition and respect.
Aspire to Nobility: Desire to join the ranks of the nobility.

Growth of Overseas Trade

Numbers: Ship numbers increased.
Tonnage: Ship capacity and cargo size grew.
Capital: Investment capital in overseas trade expanded.
Profits: Significant profits accrued from global trade.

Slave Trade

Involvement of different European countries, including Portugal, Liverpool, and Nantes.

Slave Rebellion in the French Revolution

Saint Domingue (Haiti): Rebellion in a French colony lead to independence.
Toussaint L'Ouverture: Key figure in the rebellion

Sugar, Coffee, Chocolate, Tobacco, and Cod

Commercial products' role in 18th-century trade and global expansion.

Effect of War

Major Conflicts: Impacts of multiple wars.
Blockades: Impact of maritime blockades.
Bankruptcies: Economic struggles associated with war-financed expenses.

Urban Centres

Bordeaux: A significant port city.
Merchant Attitudes: Influence of expanding global trade.

Pre-Industrial Economy

Agriculture in Economy: Significance of agriculture.
Peasants: Role and experiences.
Weather Impact: Impact of weather on agriculture and food availability.

Peasants

Definition (Early): Historical perceptions of the peasantry.
Definition (Now): Peasants were linked to agriculture.
Groups: Different peasant economic statuses.
Divisions vs. Unity: Factors binding and dividing the peasantry within communities.

Free Peasantry and Serfdom

French Peasantry: Free peasants versus feudal obligations.
Eastern European Serfdom: Comparison with other parts of Europe.

Factors Affecting Peasant Wellbeing

Taxation: Various forms of direct and indirect taxation.
Feudal Dues: Obligations to landowners.
Church Tithes: Support to religious institutions.
Military Service: Obligation to participate in armed services.

Demography (Population Trends)

Findings of Historians: General findings and conclusions regarding population.
Population Increase: Reasons behind population growth.

Agricultural Revolution

Innovations: Innovations improved agricultural practices.
Crops: Introduction of new agricultural methods and crops.
Breeding: Impact of livestock breeding.
Tools: Developments in agricultural tools had effects.

New Crops

Introduction of new staple crops, such as maize and potatoes, that changed agricultural production and dietary choices.

Did Peasant Attitudes Change?

Demand from State: Impacts of rising government requirements.
Corvée: Forced labor obligations for peasants.
Tax Revolts: Decline of peasant rebellions as taxes increased.
Food Riots: Peasant revolts and food protests.
Famine Plot: The conspiracy fears.
1789 Situation: Final situation of the French peasantry before the revolution

Philosophers and Enlightenment Thinkers (Major Figures)

Listing major Enlightenment thinkers: The thinkers' contributions (Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Beccaria, Quesnay, Helvetius, Condorcet, Diderot). Key writings connected to them in the 18th century.

Philosophers as Crusaders

Specific cases: Specific cases highlighted the impact of the Enlightenment.

Public Sphere

French Political Discussion: Areas of public discussion.
Print Culture: Printing's role.

Science of Politics (Enlightenment)

Task: Enlightenment figures' approach to political thought.

Noble Thesis and Royal Thesis

Arguments in the 18th Century: Opposing views of the French monarchy and the noble class.

Conflicting Views on Reforms

Taxing the Church (Vingtième and Don gratuit): Church tax and voluntary contributions.
Parliaments: Role of parliaments.
Abolition under Maupeou: Elimination of noble interference.
Remonstrances: Noble protests.
Lit de Justice: Royal intervention in legal proceedings.
15th Century Louis XIV: Reforms under the Louis XIV.

Other Contested Political Issues

Grain Trade: Debate over trade policies.
Physiocracy: Economic policies based on the idea that the land is the source of all wealth.
Mirabeau: Key figures involved in French political debate.
Quesnay: An economic figure who espoused liberal ideals.
Lassez-Faire: A concept of limited government intervention.

Post-Modern Critique of the Enlightenment

Focus on "knowledge": Knowledge empowerment.
Scientific Racism: Impact of racist ideology.

Broad Influence of the Enlightenment

Spread: Spread of Enlightenment ideas.
Salons and Academics: Public spheres where discussions occurred.
Reading Rooms: Access to information
Family Influence: Impact on family patterns.

Enlightenment and the Family

Women and Enlightenment: Women's lives and the Enlightenment.
Paternal Authority: The Enlightenment challenged traditional family structures.

Ideas on Divorce

Enlightenment thinkers on divorce: Support for divorce in the 18th century.

Enlightenment and Children

Affectionate Treatment: Changes in attitudes towards children.
Rousseau's Emile: A key text in educational theory.

Challenges Faced By 18th Century French State

Waging War: Military and economic demands.
Reform: Difficulties in implementing reforms.
Powerful Interest Groups: Influence of various privileged social groups.
Maintaining Trust: Public confidence in the monarchy and government.

Major Events (1787-1789)

Assembly of Notables (1787): Elite group convened to advise the King.
Financial Crisis (1788): Economic problems.
Estates General (1789): Meeting of representatives from different social classes.
Cahiers de doléances: Recorded grievances and suggestions from the French populace.

Class Conflict

Marxist Explanations: Interpretations of class struggle.

Enlightenment

Philosophes: Key Enlightenment thinkers.
Voltaire: A well known Enlightenment thinker.
Rousseau: A key Enlightenment thinker.
Montesquieu: A key Enlightenment thinker.
Condorcet: A prominent Enlightenment figure.
Political Programs: Scope of the political ideas of philosophers.