Zhou Dynasty PDF

The Zhou Dynasty 1046 – 256 BC 周 Introduction 西周 Western Zhou (c. 1046 - 771 BC) 东周 Eastern Zhou (722 - 221 BC) 春秋 Spring and Autumn (722 – 480 BC) 战国 Warring States (480 – 221 BC) Confucius (孔夫子 / 孔子; Kongfuzi / Kongzi; 551 – 479 BC) Confucius' family and personal name respectively wa...

The Zhou Dynasty 1046 – 256 BC 周 Introduction 西周 Western Zhou (c. 1046 - 771 BC) 东周 Eastern Zhou (722 - 221 BC) 春秋 Spring and Autumn (722 – 480 BC) 战国 Warring States (480 – 221 BC) Confucius (孔夫子 / 孔子; Kongfuzi / Kongzi; 551 – 479 BC) Confucius' family and personal name respectively was Kong Qiu (孔 丘). His courtesy name was Zhongni (仲尼). Philosophy In the Analects, Confucius puts the greatest emphasis on the importance of study. Mastery of the old classics, so that their deep thought and thorough study would allow them to relate the moral problems of the present to past political events. Philosophy Superiority of personal exemplification over explicit rules of behavior. His moral teachings emphasized self-cultivation, emulation of moral exemplars, and the attainment of skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules. Confucian ethics may be considered a type of virtue ethics. His teachings require examination and context in order to be understood. Philosophy One of his teachings was a variant of the Golden Rule: 己所不欲，勿施於人。 "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." Ethics The Confucian theory of ethics as exemplified in Li (禮) is based on three important conceptual aspects of life: a) ceremonies associated with sacrifice to ancestors and deities of various types, b) social and political institutions, and c) the etiquette of daily behavior. It was believed by some that li originated from the heavens, but Confucius stressed the development of li through the actions of sage leaders in human history. Political Thought Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argued that the best government is one that rules through "rites" (li) and people's natural morality, and not by using bribery and coercion. Confucius looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly those with political power, to model themselves on earlier examples. In times of division, chaos, and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the Mandate of Heaven (天命) that could unify the "world" (天下, "all under Heaven") and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Political Thought While he supported the idea of government ruling by a virtuous king, his ideas contained a number of elements to limit the power of rulers. He argued for representing truth in language, and honesty was of paramount importance. Even in facial expression, truth must always be represented. Confucius believed that if a ruler were to lead correctly, by action, that orders would be deemed unnecessary in that others will follow the proper actions of their ruler. Political Thought In discussing the relationship between a king and his subject (or a father and his son), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors. This demanded that the subordinates must give advice to their superiors if the superiors were considered to be taking the course of action that was wrong. King Wu (Zhou dynasty founder) was humble, respectful and a wise king – a true sage king by Confucian standards Laozi (老子; Laozi; c. 6th – 4th cent. BC) Laozi is known as the reputed author of the Daodejing (Tao Te Ching) and the founder of philosophical Daoism, and as a deity in religious Daoism and traditional Chinese religions. According to Chinese legend, Laozi left China for the west on a water buffalo. Laozi The story of Laozi has taken on strong religious overtones since the Han dynasty. As Daoism took root, Laozi was worshipped as a god. Belief in the revelation of the Dao from the divine Laozi resulted in the formation of the Way of the Celestial Master (founded in 142 CE.), the first organized religious Daoist sect. In later mature Daoist tradition, Laozi came to be seen as a personification of the Dao. Laozi Daoist myths state that Laozi was conceived when his mother gazed upon a falling star. He supposedly remained in her womb for 62 years before being born while his mother was leaning against a plum tree (the Chinese surname Li shares its character with "plum"). Laozi was said to have emerged as a grown man with a full grey beard and long earlobes, both symbols of wisdom and long life. Other myths claim that he was reborn 13 times after his first life during the days of Fuxi. In his last incarnation as Laozi, he lived 990 years and spent his life traveling to reveal the Dao. Daodejing Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing, though the identity of its author(s) and/or compiler(s) has been debated throughout history. It is one of the most significant treatises in Chinese cosmogony. As with most other ancient Chinese philosophers, Laozi often explains his ideas by way of paradox, analogy, appropriation of ancient sayings, repetition, symmetry, rhyme, and rhythm. Daodejing The Daodejing, often called simply Laozi after its reputed author, describes the Dao (or Tao) as the source and ideal of all existence: it is unseen, but not transcendent, immensely powerful yet supremely humble, being the root of all things. People have desires and free will (and thus are able to alter their own nature). Many act "unnaturally", upsetting the natural balance of the Dao. The Daodejing intends to lead students to a "return" to their natural state, in harmony with Dao. Language and conventional wisdom are critically assessed. Daoism views them as inherently biased and artificial, widely using paradoxes to sharpen the point. Daodejing Wu wei (無爲), literally "non-action" or "not acting", is a central concept of the Daodejing. The concept of wu wei is multifaceted, and even though it is often translated as “doing nothing”, it does not indicate passivity. It actually means a “perfect action” – and action with a certain non-intrusive, spontaneous attitude. Therefore, many translators for wu wei used the following translations: "not forcing", "creating nothingness", "acting spontaneously", and "flowing with the moment.“ In Daodejing, wu wei is also used to explain ziran (自 然, „naturalness“), or harmony with the Dao. Laozi used the term broadly with simplicity and humility as key virtues, often in contrast to selfish action. On a political level, it means avoiding such circumstances as war, harsh laws and heavy taxes. Daodejing Some of Laozi's famous sayings include: "The usefulness of a pot comes from its emptiness." (Daodejing, 11) 埏埴以為器，當其無，有器之用。 "Try to change it (Dao) and you will ruin it. Try to hold it and you will lose it." (Daodejing, 29) 為者敗之，執者失之。 “The Dao in its regular course does nothing (wu wei), and so there is nothing which it does not do.” (Daodejing, 37) 道常無為而無不為。 "Those who know do not say. Those who say do not know." (Daodejing, 56) 知者不言，言者不知。 Daoism (道家 / 道教 Daojia / Daojiao) Daoism is a philosophical, ethical (Daojia) or religious tradition (Daojiao) of Chinese origin that emphasizes living in harmony with the Dao. The term Dao means "way", "path", or "principle", and can also be found in Chinese philosophies and religions other than Daoism. In Daoism, however, Dao denotes something that is both the source of, and the force behind, everything that exists. Daoism and Confucianism Many scholars believe Daoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism. The philosophical terms Dao and De are shared by both Daoism and Confucianism, and Laozi is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius. Confucius asking Laozi what rituals are Daoism and Confucianism Zhuangzi, a follower of Laozi and the second most important Daoist in Daoism history, explicitly criticized Confucianist and Mohist tenets in his work. In general, Daoism rejects the Confucianist emphasis on rituals, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors naturalness, spontaneity, and individualism instead. Zhuangzi Daoism, Confucianism, Buddhism However, Daoism and Confucianism were never true rivals (like Confucianism and Legalism were), their relationship can be described as more of a respectful and constructive discussion than aggressive opposition. Most Chinese identified and still identify to some extent with all three traditions – Confucianism, Buddhism and Daoism simultaneously. This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school in the Tang dynasty. Daoism and Buddhism The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Daoism. Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Daoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Daoist vocabulary. Legacy Daoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries. Chinese alchemy (especially 內丹 neidan), Chinese astrology, Chan (Zen) Buddhism, several martial arts, traditional Chinese medicine, feng shui, and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Daoism throughout history. Beyond China, Daoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia. Legacy The first organized form of Daoism, the Tianshi (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling, who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. Daoism gained official status in China again during the Tang dynasty (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative. Zhang Daoling Legacy Today, Daoism is one of five religions officially recognized in China. Daoism also has sizable communities in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan and in Southeast Asia. Daoist priests in Hong Kong Daoist priests in China Religious Daoism (道教 Daojiao) Religious Daoist beliefs include teachings based on various sources, and are often intermingled with Chinese folk religious practice. Popular Daoist religious sects have co-opted mythical figures from Chinese folklore as well as actual Daoist personages as figures of worship (“saints”). Religious Daoism (道教 Daojiao) Popular Daoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity. Intellectual Daoists, such as the Celestial Masters sect, usually present Laozi (Laojun, "Lord Lao") and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities. The pantheon tends to mirror the bureaucracy of Imperial China; deities also may be promoted or demoted for their actions. A recurrent and important element of Daoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality. Religious Daoism (道教 Daojiao) Laojun (Lord Lao) The Three Pure Ones. Highest Gods in the Taoist pantheon. They are regarded as pure manifestation of the Tao and the origin of all sentient beings Jade Emperor Mount Mao Daoist Temple in Gourong, Jiangsu, China Daoism and Art Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Daoist thought. A few works of famous painters: Wu Wei, Celebration at the Fishing Village Huang Gongwang, Dwelling in the Fuchun Mountains Daoism and Art Mi Fu, Mountains and Pines in Spring (Part) Muqi Fachang, Eight Views around the area of HsiaoHsiang (Part) Daoism and Art Shitao, Reminiscences of Qin-Huai Ni Zan, The Distant Cold Flow Pine Mozi (墨子 Mozi c. 470 BC – 391 BC) He was schooled in Confucianism in his early years, but he viewed Confucianism as being too fatalistic and emphasizing too much on elaborate celebrations and funerals which he felt were detrimental to the livelihood and productivity of common people. Mozi Mencius wrote that Mozi believed in love for all mankind. As long as something benefits mankind, Mozi will pursue it even if it means hurting his head or his feet. It was also said that in terms of moral virtue, even Confucius and Laozi cannot compare to Mozi. Mozi's moral teachings emphasized selfreflection and authenticity rather than obedience to ritual. By reflecting on one's own successes and failures, one attains true self-knowledge rather than mere conformity to ritual. Mozi exhorted people to lead a life of asceticism and self-restraint, renouncing both material and spiritual extravagance. Like Confucius, Mozi idealized the Xia Dynasty and the ancients of Chinese mythology, but he criticized the Confucian belief that modern life should be patterned on the ways of the ancients. After all, he pointed out, what we think of as "ancient" was actually innovative in its time, and thus should not be used to hinder present-day innovation. Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the longentrenched Chinese overattachment to family and clan structures with the concept of "impartial caring" or "universal love" (兼愛, jian ai). Mozi’s basic argument concerning universal love asserts that universal love is supremely practical. Mozi tended to evaluate actions based on whether they provide benefit to the people. Mozi thought that actions should be measured by the way they contribute to the "greatest societal good for what we have agreed to in a social contract." With this criterion Mozi denounced things as diverse as offensive warfare, expensive funerals, and even music and dance, which he saw as serving no useful purpose. Mozi did not object to music in principle, but only because of the heavy tax burden such activities placed on commoners and also due to the fact that officials tended to indulge in them at the expense of their duties. Mohism Mohism is known for its insistence that all people are equally deserving of receiving material benefit and being protected from physical harm. In Mohism, morality is defined not by tradition and ritual, but rather by a constant moral guide. Tradition varies from culture to culture, and human beings need an extratraditional guide to identify which traditions are morally acceptable. The moral guide must then promote and encourage social behaviors that maximize the general utility of all the people in that society. Mohism Mohism is against fatalism, the belief that all outcomes are predestined or fated to occur. According to Mohism, fatalism is an irresponsible belief espoused by those who refuse to acknowledge that their own sinfulness has caused the hardships of their lives. Prosperity or poverty are directly correlated with either virtue or sinfulness, respectively; not fate. Mozi calls fatalism a heresy which needs to be destroyed.