Respiratory Diseases Past Paper PDF

2.,and, 3. Matching Section: Match up each of the following respiratory patterns with its correct definition:   8. Define; know the common name, causes, and signs and symptoms of the following upper respiratory disease infections:  **Laryngotracheobronchitis (croup):** A respiratory condition char...

2.,and, 3. Matching Section: Match up each of the following respiratory patterns with its correct definition:   8. Define; know the common name, causes, and signs and symptoms of the following upper respiratory disease infections:  **Laryngotracheobronchitis (croup):** A respiratory condition characterized by inflammation of the larynx, trachea, and bronchi, often causing a barking cough and difficulty breathing, typically in children. **Scarlet Fever:** An infectious disease caused by streptococcal bacteria, marked by a red rash, fever, and sore throat. It often follows a strep throat infection. **Sinusitis:** Inflammation of the sinuses, often due to infection, resulting in symptoms like nasal congestion, facial pain, and pressure. **Influenza:** A contagious viral infection of the respiratory system, causing symptoms such as fever, cough, sore throat, body aches, and fatigue. **Infectious Rhinitis:** Inflammation of the nasal mucous membrane due to viral or bacterial infection, leading to symptoms like runny nose, sneezing, and congestion. 9. Define; know the causes and the signs and symptoms of bronchiolitis.  **Bronchiolitis:** Bronchiolitis is an inflammation of the small airways (bronchioles) in the lungs, commonly seen in infants and young children. **Causes:** 1. **Viruses:** The most common cause is respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), but other viruses like rhinovirus, adenovirus, and influenza can also be responsible. 2. **Exposure:** Close contact with infected individuals or environments can lead to transmission. 3. **Environmental factors:** Exposure to smoke, pollutants, or allergens may increase risk. **Signs:** 1. **Wheezing:** A high-pitched whistling sound during breathing. 2. **Rapid breathing:** Increased respiratory rate. 3. **Retractions:** Visible pulling in of the chest wall between the ribs during breathing. **Symptoms:** 1. **Cough:** Often dry and persistent. 2. **Difficulty breathing:** Shortness of breath or labored breathing. 3. **Fever:** Mild to moderate fever may be present. 4. **Irritability:** Increased fussiness or lethargy in infants. 5. **Nasal congestion:** Runny or stuffy nose. 10., 11., And 12.,. Matching Section: Match up each type of Pneumoniawith its correct pathophysiology:  **Lobar pneumonia**: Involves inflammation and consolidation of a large and continuous area of the lobe of a lung, primarily affecting the alveoli. **Bronchopneumonia**: Characterized by patchy inflammation that affects the bronchioles and adjacent alveoli, often spreading throughout the lungs. **Interstitial pneumonia**: Involves inflammation primarily in the interstitial spaces of the lung, affecting the alveolar walls and often associated with viral infections or atypical bacteria. 13\. Define, know the causes, and the signs and symptoms of the following lower respiratory pathologies:  **Asthma:** A chronic inflammatory disease of the airways, often triggered by allergens or irritants. Symptoms include wheezing, shortness of breath, chest tightness, and coughing. **Emphysema:** A progressive lung disease often caused by smoking, leading to the destruction of alveoli. Symptoms include chronic cough, difficulty breathing, and a decreased ability to exercise. **Histoplasmosis:** A fungal infection caused by inhaling spores from soil or bird droppings. Symptoms may include fever, cough, fatigue, and chest pain. **Tuberculosis (TB):** A bacterial infection that primarily affects the lungs. Symptoms include a persistent cough, weight loss, night sweats, and fever. **Legionnaire's Disease:** A severe form of pneumonia caused by Legionella bacteria, often found in water systems. Symptoms include cough, shortness of breath, fever, and muscle aches. **Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS):** A viral respiratory illness caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV. Symptoms include fever, chills, cough, and difficulty breathing. **Anthrax:** A bacterial infection caused by Bacillus anthracis, often linked to exposure to infected animals or contaminated products. Symptoms vary by type but can include fever, sore throat, and respiratory distress in pulmonary anthrax. 18\. Define and differentiate between the following lung pathologies:  **Bronchogenic Carcinoma:** A type of lung cancer that originates in the bronchial tubes; often linked to smoking and exposure to carcinogens. **Asthma:** A chronic condition characterized by inflammation and narrowing of the airways, leading to wheezing, shortness of breath, and coughing. **Cystic Fibrosis (CF):** A genetic disorder that affects the lungs and digestive system, causing thick, sticky mucus production that can lead to respiratory infections and digestive issues. **Emphysema:** A chronic lung condition that involves damage to the alveoli (air sacs), leading to difficulty breathing and reduced oxygen exchange, often associated with smoking. **Bronchiectasis:** A condition where the bronchial tubes become permanently widened and damaged, leading to mucus buildup, chronic infections, and difficulty clearing airways 19. Define and differentiate between the following lung pathologies:  **Pulmonary Embolus**: A blockage in a pulmonary artery, usually caused by blood clots that travel to the lungs from the legs or other parts of the body (deep vein thrombosis). **Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)**: A severe inflammatory response in the lungs, leading to impaired gas exchange, often caused by trauma, pneumonia, or sepsis. **Flail Chest**: A condition where a segment of the rib cage breaks and becomes detached from the rest of the chest wall, leading to abnormal movement during breathing. **Pneumothorax**: The presence of air in the pleural space, causing the lung on that side to collapse and resulting in difficulty breathing and chest pain. **Pleural Effusion**: Accumulation of excess fluid in the pleural space, which can compress the lung and cause breathing difficulties. **Atelectasis**: Collapse or incomplete expansion of a lung or part of a lung, leading to reduced gas exchange, often due to blockage of airways or pressure from outside the lung. 21\. Define, know the causes, signs/symptoms, and age group for Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome.  **Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome (IRDS)** is a condition primarily affecting premature infants, characterized by difficulty breathing due to insufficient surfactant in the lungs. **Causes:** - **Prematurity**: Most common cause; lungs are often not fully developed. - **Surfactant deficiency**: Surfactant is a substance that helps keep the alveoli (air sacs) open. - **Maternal diabetes**: Can increase risk. - **Cesarean delivery**: Babies born via C-section may have a higher risk if delivered early. **Signs/Symptoms:** - Rapid, shallow breathing (tachypnea) - Grunting sounds during breathing - Nasal flaring - Retracting of the chest muscles - Cyanosis (bluish color of the skin, especially around the lips and face) **Age Group:** - Most commonly affects **premature infants**, particularly those born before 34 weeks of gestation. 22\. Define, differentiate and known what is impaired from the following brain pathologies:  **- Supratentorial Lesion:** A lesion located above the tentorium cerebelli, typically involving the cerebral hemispheres. **Impairments:** May result in cognitive deficits, motor function issues, language impairments (if in the dominant hemisphere), sensory disturbances, or seizures. - **Infratentorial Lesion:** A lesion located below the tentorium cerebelli, often affecting the brainstem and cerebellum. **Impairments:** Can lead to balance and coordination problems, cranial nerve dysfunction, autonomic dysfunction, and issues with vital functions such as respiration and heart rate. - **Left Cerebral Hemisphere Damage:** Damage to the left side of the brain, often affecting areas responsible for language, logic, and analytical processing. **Impairments:** Commonly results in aphasia (difficulty with speech and language), right-sided weakness or paralysis, and impairments in processing verbal information. - **Right Cerebral Hemisphere Damage:** Damage to the right side of the brain, often impacting areas involved in spatial awareness, creativity, and emotional processing. **Impairments:** May cause neglect of the left side of space, difficulty with nonverbal communication, impaired spatial skills, and challenges in recognizing faces and emotions. - **Hemianopia:** A visual field loss on one side of the vertical midline, often due to damage to the visual pathways in the brain. **Impairments:** Affects vision in half of the visual field, which can lead to difficulties in reading, navigating space, and recognizing objects or people on the affected side. 23. Define, differentiate, and know the signs/symptoms of: **Dysarthria:** A motor speech disorder resulting from neurological injury, affecting the muscles involved in speech. **Signs/Symptoms:** - Slurred or slow speech - Difficulty controlling the volume of speech - Changes in voice quality (nasal or breathy) - Problems with articulation and pronunciation **Expressive/Motor Aphasia (Broca\'s Aphasia):** A type of aphasia where the individual has difficulty expressing thoughts verbally, usually due to damage in Broca's area of the brain. **Signs/Symptoms:** - Non-fluent, effortful speech - Grammatical errors and omissions (e.g., leaving out small words) - Good comprehension but poor verbal output - Frustration with communication difficulties **Receptive/Sensory Aphasia (Wernicke\'s Aphasia):** A type of aphasia characterized by impaired understanding of spoken or written language, often due to damage in Wernicke's area. **Signs/Symptoms:** - Fluent but nonsensical speech - Difficulty understanding spoken and written language - Use of made-up words or irrelevant responses - Lack of awareness of communication deficits **Global/Mixed Aphasia:** A severe form of aphasia that affects both expressive and receptive language abilities, often resulting from extensive brain damage. **Signs/Symptoms:** - Limited speech production and comprehension - Inability to read or write effectively - Severe communication challenges - May produce few recognizable words or phrases 24. Define and differentiate between an  **Epileptic Seizure:**A sudden, uncontrolled electrical disturbance in the brain that causes changes in behavior, movements, feelings, or consciousness. **Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)/Mini-Strokes:**A temporary period of symptoms similar to those of a stroke, caused by a temporary decrease in blood supply to the brain, lasting a few minutes to hours, with no lasting effects. **Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA)/Stroke:**A medical emergency that occurs when blood flow to a part of the brain is interrupted or reduced, leading to brain cell damage and potential long-term neurological deficits. 25. What is meningitis? What are the causes of meningitis, what is the most common cause of meningitis? Which form of meningitis is curable, which form is more deadly? Can meningitis be treated? Is there a vaccine for meningitis? **Meningitis:** Inflammation of the protective membranes (meninges) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. **Causes:** Viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections; also can result from non-infectious factors like medications or autoimmune diseases. **Most common cause:** Viral meningitis is the most prevalent. **Curable form:** Viral meningitis is typically self-limiting and curable. **Deadly form:** Bacterial meningitis can be severe and life-threatening. **Treatable?:** Yes, bacterial meningitis is treatable with prompt antibiotic therapy, while viral meningitis generally resolves on its own. **Vaccines:** Vaccines are available for certain types of bacterial meningitis, including meningococcal, pneumococcal, and Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccines. 26. Which organisms can cause encephalitis?  Herpes simplex virus & rabies virus 27\. Define and differentiate between  **Noncommunicating Hydrocephalus**: A type of hydrocephalus where the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is blocked along one or more pathways, preventing it from reaching the ventricles or being absorbed properly. This often occurs due to obstructions like tumors or congenital malformations. **Communicating Hydrocephalus**: A type where the CSF can flow between the ventricles but is not being absorbed adequately into the bloodstream. This condition can arise from factors like infection, bleeding, or other conditions affecting CSF absorption, leading to increased intracranial pressure 28\. Define, and known the causes, and sign/symptoms of different types of **spinal bifida** **Spina Bifida:** Spina bifida is a congenital condition where the spinal column does not close completely around the spinal cord, leading to potential nerve damage and physical disabilities. 1. **Spina Bifida Occulta:** - **Definition:** A mild form where the spinal column is not fully closed but there is no protrusion of the spinal cord or nerves. - **Causes:** Genetic factors and environmental influences, often without a clear cause. - **Signs/Symptoms:** Usually asymptomatic; may present with back pain, hair tufts, or pigmented lesions over the affected area. 2. **Meningocele:** - **Definition:** The protective membranes around the spinal cord (meninges) protrude through the vertebrae, forming a sac. - **Causes:** Similar to occulta, often linked to genetic and environmental factors. - **Signs/Symptoms:** May have minor neurological impairment; sac may be visible, but the spinal cord remains intact. 3. **Myelomeningocele:** - **Definition:** The most severe form, where the spinal cord and nerves protrude through the opening in the spine, forming a sac. - **Causes:** Similar to other forms, with increased risk factors including maternal folic acid deficiency. - **Signs/Symptoms:** Significant neurological impairment, paralysis, loss of sensation, bladder and bowel control issues, and hydrocephalus (fluid buildup in the brain). **Common Causes Across Types** - Genetic predisposition. - Environmental factors (e.g., lack of folic acid during pregnancy). - Maternal health issues (e.g., diabetes, obesity). 29\. Define, known the causes, and sign/symptoms of **cerebral palsy** Cerebral palsy (CP) is a group of disorders affecting movement, muscle tone, and posture, caused by abnormal brain development or damage. **Causes** - **Prenatal Factors:** Genetic issues, maternal infections, or exposure to toxins during pregnancy. - **Perinatal Factors:** Premature birth, low birth weight, or lack of oxygen during delivery. - **Postnatal Factors:** Brain injury from infections, accidents, or severe jaundice in infancy. **Signs and Symptoms** - Motor impairments, posture issues, developmental delays, speech difficulties, sensory issues, cognitive impairments, and/or seizures 30\. Define, known the causes, and sign/symptoms of **Multiple Sclerosis (MS)** Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic disease that affects the central nervous system, leading to the deterioration of the protective covering of nerve fibers (myelin), which disrupts communication between the brain and the body. **Causes** - **Autoimmune Response:** The immune system mistakenly attacks the myelin sheath. - **Genetic Factors:** A family history of MS may increase risk. - **Environmental Factors:** Possible links to vitamin D deficiency, smoking, and viral infections (like Epstein-Barr virus). **Signs and Symptoms** - Fatigue, Numbness or Tingling, Muscle Weakness, Vision Problems, Cognitive Changes, Spasticity, Bladder and Bowel Issues 31., 32., 33., 34. and 35. Matching Section: Match up each nervous system chronic degenerative disorder with its correct definition:  **Parkinson's Disease:** A progressive neurological disorder that affects movement, characterized by tremors, stiffness, and difficulty with balance and coordination. **Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS):** A progressive neurodegenerative disease that affects nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord, leading to muscle weakness, paralysis, and ultimately respiratory failure. **Myasthenia Gravis:** An autoimmune disorder that leads to weakness and rapid fatigue of voluntary muscles, caused by a breakdown in communication between nerves and muscles. **Huntington's Disease:** A hereditary neurodegenerative disorder that causes the progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain, leading to movement, cognitive, and psychiatric issues. **Alzheimer's Disease:** A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and changes in behavior, primarily affecting older adults. 36\. Define the following eye pathologies:  **Astigmatism:** A refractive error caused by an irregular shape of the cornea or lens, leading to blurred vision at various distances. **Conjunctivitis:** Inflammation of the conjunctiva, often referred to as \"pink eye,\" which can be caused by infection, allergies, or irritation. **Strabismus:** A condition where the eyes do not properly align with each other, leading to issues with depth perception and double vision. **Diplopia:** The medical term for double vision, where a person sees two images of one object. **Presbyopia:** Age-related difficulty in focusing on close objects due to loss of lens elasticity. **Cataracts:** Clouding of the lens in the eye, which can lead to decreased vision. **Glaucoma:** A group of eye conditions that damage the optic nerve, often associated with high intraocular pressure, potentially leading to vision loss. **Macular Degeneration:** A degenerative condition affecting the macula, the central part of the retina, leading to loss of central vision. **Myopia:** Also known as nearsightedness, a refractive error where distant objects appear blurry while close objects are clear. **Hyperopia:** Also known as farsightedness, a refractive error where close objects appear blurry while distant objects may be clearer. 40. Define the following ear pathologies: **Otitis Media:** Inflammation or infection of the middle ear, often causing pain and fluid buildup. **Otitis:** General term for inflammation or infection of the ear. **Externa:** Refers to otitis externa, an infection or inflammation of the outer ear canal, commonly known as \"swimmer\'s ear.\" **Otosclerosis:** A condition characterized by abnormal bone growth in the middle ear, leading to hearing loss. **Meniere's Syndrome:** A disorder of the inner ear causing episodes of vertigo, tinnitus, hearing loss, and a feeling of fullness in the ear. **41. Diabetes Mellitus Type I and Type II** - **Causes**: - **Type I**: Autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas; typically occurs in childhood/adolescence. - **Type II**: Insulin resistance and eventual pancreatic beta-cell dysfunction; often associated with obesity and lifestyle factors. - **Treatments**: - **Type I**: Insulin therapy is essential; lifestyle management and monitoring blood glucose levels. - **Type II**: Lifestyle changes (diet, exercise), oral hypoglycemics, and possibly insulin. - **Complications**: - **Acute**: Diabetic ketoacidosis (Type I), hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state (Type II). - **Chronic**: Neuropathy, nephropathy, retinopathy, cardiovascular disease. **42. Diabetes Insipidus** A disorder characterized by the inability to concentrate urine due to a deficiency of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or resistance to its effects, leading to excessive urination and thirst. **43. Goiter Conditions** Conditions leading to a goiter (enlarged thyroid) include: - Iodine deficiency - Hashimoto\'s thyroiditis - Graves\' disease - Thyroid nodules - Certain medications **44. Endocrine Pathologies** - **Graves' Disease**: An autoimmune hyperthyroidism characterized by overproduction of thyroid hormones. - **Cushing's Syndrome**: Excess cortisol production, often due to adrenal tumors or prolonged corticosteroid use; symptoms include obesity, hypertension, and skin changes. - **Addison's Disease**: Adrenal insufficiency leading to low cortisol and aldosterone; symptoms include fatigue, weight loss, and hyperpigmentation. **47. Anorexia, Nausea, Vomiting, Bulimia** - **Anorexia**: Eating disorder marked by loss of appetite or severe restriction of food intake. - **Nausea**: A sensation of unease and discomfort in the stomach often preceding vomiting. - **Vomiting**: The forceful expulsion of the contents of the stomach through the mouth. - **Bulimia**: Eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging. **48. Diarrhea vs. Constipation** - **Diarrhea**: Frequent, loose, watery stools; can result from infections, dietary changes, or gastrointestinal disorders. - **Constipation**: Infrequent or difficult bowel movements; often related to diet, dehydration, or sedentary lifestyle. **49. Oral Cavity Pathologies** - **Herpes Simplex Type 1**: Viral infection causing cold sores; signs include painful blisters. - **Gingivitis**: Inflammation of the gums due to plaque buildup; symptoms include swollen gums and bleeding. - **Oral Candidiasis (Thrush)**: Fungal infection presenting as white patches in the mouth; common in immunocompromised individuals. - **Hyperkeratosis**: Thickening of the skin in the mouth; can indicate irritation or precancerous changes. - **Squamous Cell Carcinoma**: Malignant tumor of the mouth; symptoms include non-healing sores, lumps, and difficulty swallowing. **50. Most Common Type of Esophageal Cancer** Adenocarcinoma is the most common type. **51. Esophageal Hernia** A condition where a portion of the stomach protrudes through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity, often leading to GERD. **52. Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)** Causes: Weak lower esophageal sphincter, obesity, pregnancy. Signs/Symptoms: Heartburn, regurgitation, chest pain, difficulty swallowing. **53. Locations of Peptic Ulcers** - **Gastric Ulcer**: Stomach lining. - **Duodenal Ulcer**: Upper part of the small intestine. **54-56. Hepatitis Types** - **Hepatitis A (HAV)**: Caused by ingestion of contaminated food/water; symptoms include jaundice and fatigue. - **Hepatitis B (HBV)**: Transmitted through blood/body fluids; symptoms may be similar to HAV but can lead to chronic liver disease. - **Hepatitis C (HCV)**: Primarily spread through blood; often asymptomatic initially but can lead to chronic liver disease. **57. Liver Pathologies** - **Jaundice**: Yellowing of skin/eyes due to bilirubin buildup; can indicate liver disease. - **Gallstones**: Solid particles that form in the gallbladder; may cause pain and biliary obstruction. - **Cirrhosis**: Scarring of the liver due to chronic liver disease; symptoms include fatigue, jaundice, and swelling. - **Hepatocellular Carcinoma**: Primary liver cancer, often arising from cirrhosis; symptoms include weight loss and abdominal pain. **58. Pancreatic Cancer** Causes: Smoking, obesity, family history. Signs/Symptoms: Abdominal pain, weight loss, jaundice, changes in stool. **59. Colorectal Cancer** Causes: Genetic factors, diet, inflammatory bowel disease. Signs/Symptoms: Changes in bowel habits, rectal bleeding, abdominal discomfort. Risk Factors: Age, family history, obesity, smoking. **60. Urinary System Pathologies** - **Urethritis**: Inflammation of the urethra, often caused by infections. - **Pyelonephritis**: Kidney infection resulting from urinary tract infections. - **Cystitis**: Bladder inflammation, commonly due to bacterial infection. - **Glomerulonephritis**: Inflammation of kidney glomeruli, can be post-infectious or autoimmune. - **Nephrotic Syndrome**: Kidney disorder causing excessive protein loss in urine; signs include edema and high cholesterol. **61. UTIs More Common In** Females, due to anatomical differences. **62. Nephritic vs. Nephrotic Syndrome** - **Nephritic Syndrome**: Inflammation, hematuria, and mild proteinuria. - **Nephrotic Syndrome**: Massive proteinuria, edema, and hyperlipidemia. **63. Kidney Stones (Urolithiasis) Causes** Calcium, oxalate, uric acid, and cystine can form kidney stones. **64. Adult Polycystic Kidney Disease** A genetic disorder causing fluid-filled cysts in the kidneys; symptoms include hypertension, back pain, and hematuria. **65. Wilm's Tumor Age Group** Commonly seen in children aged 3 to 4 years. **66. Acute vs. Chronic Renal Failure** - **Acute Renal Failure**: Sudden loss of kidney function; often reversible. - **Chronic Renal Failure**: Gradual loss of kidney function over time; typically irreversible. **67. Male Reproductive Pathologies** - **Epispadias**: Urethral opening on the top of the penis. - **Ectopic Testis**: Testis not descended into the scrotum. - **Hypospadias**: Urethral opening on the underside of the penis. - **Cryptorchidism**: Undescended testis. - **Torsion**: Twisting of the spermatic cord, causing pain and potential loss of testis. **68. Male Reproductive Fluid Accumulation** - **Spermatocele**: Cyst containing sperm above the testis. - **Varicocele**: Enlarged veins in the scrotum. - **Hydrocele**: Fluid accumulation around the testis. - **Ependymalcele**: Not typically associated with the male reproductive system. - **Vasocele**: Fluid accumulation in the spermatic cord. **69. Commonly Infected Male Structures** - Prostate gland, urethra, and epididymis. **70. Common Cancerous Structure Over Age 50** Prostate gland. **71. Common Cancerous Structure Ages 18-30** Testes. **72. Female Reproductive Pathologies** - **Ovarian Cysts**: Fluid-filled sacs on the ovary, often benign. - **Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)**: Infection of reproductive organs; symptoms include pelvic pain and fever. - **Endometriosis**: Endometrial tissue outside the uterus; causes pain and infertility. - **Ovarian Cancer**: Malignant tumor of the ovaries; symptoms may be vague but include bloating and abdominal pain. - **Vaginitis**: Inflammation of the vagina, often due to infection or irritation. **73. Pelvic Inflammatory Disease (PID)** Causes: Sexually transmitted infections, especially chlamydia and gonorrhea. Signs/Symptoms: Pelvic pain, fever, abnormal discharge. **74. Benign Female Tumors** Ovarian Cysts, Rectocele, Cystocele. **75. Malignant Female Tumors** Breast cancer, Ovarian cancer. **76. Carcinoma of the Uterus** A malignant tumor of the uterine lining; causes include hormone imbalances and obesity. Symptoms often include abnormal bleeding. **77-79. Sexually Transmitted Diseases** - **Bacterial**: Gonorrhea, Chlamydia. - **Viral**: HIV, Herpes, HPV. - **Protozoal**: Trichomoniasis. 80\. PAULLLLL