Anatomy of Skeleton - Lecture 1 - Introduction and Definition PDF

‫وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي‬ ‫كلية المامون الجامعة‬ ‫قسم الشعة والسونار‬ ‫‪1‬‬  Introduction and Definition learning anatomy is similar to learning a new language. There are thousands of anatomy terms that students need to le...

‫وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي‬ ‫كلية المامون الجامعة‬ ‫قسم الشعة والسونار‬ ‫‪1‬‬  Introduction and Definition learning anatomy is similar to learning a new language. There are thousands of anatomy terms that students need to learn in a very short time. Important Anatomical subjects that need to know: Anatomical position Directions, body planes, and relations Types of movements Regions of the body Surface anatomy Body cavities Specific anatomical terminology Anatomical position position in anatomy: The person is standing upright, with the arms hanging by the side, palms facing forward, and thumbs pointing away from the body. The feet are slightly parallel, and toes oriented to the front. Anatomical planes Imaginary planes that intersect the body, creating slices of various organs and structures. Main anatomical planes: Mid-sagittal/median, sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (axial) Directional terms Anatomical terms used to describe the position and relation between various structures. Main directional terms: Anterior, posterior, ventral, dorsal, proximal, distal, median, medial, lateral, superior, inferior, cranial, caudal, external, internal, superficial, deep, palmar, dorsal, plantar Movements Changing the position of a body part around a certain axis and in one of the anatomical planes. Main types of movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, lateral rotation, medial rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, inversion, eversion 2 Anatomical regions Areas of the human body defined by the landmarks provided by evident structures that are easily palpable or visible. Main regions: Head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, upper extremity, lower extremity The person is standing upright, with the arms hanging by the side, palms facing forward, and thumbs pointing away from the body. The feet are slightly parallel, and toes oriented to the front. There are three major planes of the body: 1. Sagittal (longitudinal) - vertical plane separates the left and right sides of the body. 2. Frontal (coronal) - vertical plane that separates the front (anterior) and back (posterior) of the body. 3. Transverse (axial) - horizontal plane separates the upper (superior) and lower (inferior) halves of the body. 3 The terms used to describe the position and relation between various structures, these terms are: Anterior In front of or front Posterior In behind of or behind Ventral Towards the front of the body Dorsal Towards the back of the body Distal Away or farthest away from the trunk or the point of origin of the body part Proximal Closer or towards the trunk or the point of origin of the body part Median Midline of the body Medial Towards the median Lateral Away from median Superior Towards the top of the head Inferior Towards the feet Cranial Towards the head Caudal Towards the tail External Towards the surface, superficial 4  Internal Away from the surface, deep Superficial Nearer to the surface Deep Farther from the surface Palmar Anterior hand or palm of hand (palmar) Dorsal (of hand) Posterior surface of hand (dorsum) Plantar Inferior surface of foot (sole) Dorsal (of foot) Superior surface of foot (dorsum) Changing the position of a body part around a certain axis and in one of the anatomical planes. Flexion Decreasing the angle between two structures Extension Increasing the angle between two structures Plantarflexion Flexion of the plantar (underside) part of the foot Dorsiflexion Flexion of the dorsum (top) part of the foot Abduction Moving away from the midline Adduction Moving towards the midline 5 Protrusion Moving straight ahead or forwards (tongue, mandible) Retrusion Moving backwards (tongue, mandible) Protraction Moving forwards and laterally simultaneously Retraction Moving backwards and medially simultaneously Depression Moving downwards Elevation Moving upwards Medial (internal) Spiral movement towards the midline rotation Lateral (external) Spiral movement away from the midline rotation Rotation (trunk) Twisting motion towards or away from the midline (left or right) Flexion (trunk) Side (lateral flexion) or forward (anterior flexion) bending Extension (trunk) Bending backwards Pronation Medial rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of the hand facing posteriorly (if in anatomical position) or inferiorly (if elbow is flexed) Supination Lateral rotation of the radius, resulting in the palm of the hand facing anteriorly (if in anatomical position) or superiorly (if elbow is flexed) Circumduction Combined movement starting with flexion, then abduction, extension, and ending with adduction 6  Deviation Movement of the wrist joint towards the radial or ulnar sides (radial deviation, ulnar deviation) Opposition Touching the pad of any one of your fingers with the thumb of the same hand Reposition Separating the pad of any of your fingers from the thumb of the same hand Inversion Plantar side of the foot is rotated towards the median plane Eversion Plantar side of the foot is rotated away from the median plane The human body is divided into regions. The main ones in the human body are the head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, together with the upper and lower extremities. The upper limb is divided into shoulder, arm, elbow, forearm, wrist, and hand. The lower limb consists of the hip, gluteal, thigh, knee, leg, ankle, and foot. Surface anatomy (also called superficial anatomy and visual anatomy) is the study of the external features of the body, this is termed topography. Surface anatomy deals with anatomical features that can be studied by sight, without dissection. And it is a branch of gross anatomy, along with endoscopic and radiological anatomy. Surface anatomy is a descriptive science. Is a fluid-filled space inside the body that holds and protects internal organs. Human body cavities are separated by membranes and other structures. The two largest human body cavities are the (ventral cavity & dorsal cavity). These two body cavities are subdivided into smaller body cavities. 7 Name of cavity Principal contents Membranous lining Cranial cavity Brain Meninges Dorsal body cavity Vertebral canal Spinal cord Meninges Pericardium Thoracic cavity Heart, lungs Pleural cavity Abdominal Digestive-organs, Ventral Peritoneum cavity spleen, kidneys body cavity Abdominopelvic cavity Pelvic Bladder, reproductive Peritoneum cavity organs 8  Cells and Tissue Cells and tissues form a vital part of living entities. There are no tissues without cells and cells are responsible for making up the different types of tissues in all multicellular organisms. A cell is mainly found in every living organism. Cells : A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of life. Therefore it is referred to as a fundamental unit of life. Every function of the body is effected through these minute cells. The term cell was first coined in the year 1665 by an English scientist Robert Hooke. Among all the living organisms, some organisms are unicellular, consisting of only one cell, which is capable of performing all the life functions. These unicellular organisms include amoeba, bacteria, Protista (majorly unicellular, few protists are multicellular) etc. Multicellular organisms consist of different types of cells which have specialized functions. Plants, animals, human beings, and birds are examples of multicellular organisms. There are two different types of cells, the prokaryotic cells and the eukaryotic cells and these differences are mainly based on the presence and absence of the nucleus in their cell. 9 10 Tissues: Tissues are groups of similar cells, working together to perform a specific function. Tissues are divided into four different types: 1. Connective Tissue: (Blood, bone, cartilage, adipose, and lymph). 2. Muscle Tissue: (Skeletal muscle, Cardiac muscle, and Smooth muscle). 3. Nervous Tissue: (brain, spinal cord, and nerves). 4. Epithelial Tissue: (surface of the skin, the reproductive tract, the airways, and the inner lining of the digestive tract). 11 12  Cell and Tissue – Differences CELL TISSUE Cells are the smallest structural and Tissues are clusters of cells, specialized functional units of an organism, which cells. are characteristically microscopic. Found in both unicellular and Found only in multicellular organisms. multicellular organisms. Comprise of different cellular organelles, Comprise of similar types of cells, including the nucleus, mitochondria, specialized for a unique function. lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, etc. Four main types of tissue- Epithelial Two types of cells – Eukaryotic cells and tissue, Connective tissue, Muscular prokaryotic cells. tissue, and Nervous tissue. Has its own unique function. A group of similar cells combines together to Functions include Growth, metabolism, perform a similar function. Example – and reproduction. Nerve cells of the nervous system are involved in different functions of the nervous system. 13  Anatomical Terminology (Prefixes and Suffixes) we have to use specialized terminology that helps us describe the structures of the human body, where exactly they’re located, and their relationship to one another, Below are lists of terms that concern with the anatomy of the human body: Common prefixes related to organs, body regions or structures (with examples) abdom- the abdomen transversus abdominis (abdominal muscle) aden- glands adenocarcinoma (tumor in a gland) adip- fat/fatty tissue adipocyte (fat cell) adren- the adrenal glands adrenal artery andro- male androgens (male hormones) angi- blood vessels angiotensin (hormone causing constriction of blood vessels) arteri- arteries arteriole (small, oxygen carrying, blood vessel) arthr-, articul- joints arthritis (inflammation of a joint), articulation (joint between two parts, typically bones) axill- armpit region axillary nerve brachi- the arm brachioradialis (muscle that originates in the arm) bronch(i)- the lungs bronchitis (inflammation in the lungs) 14 capit-, cep-, ceph- the head rectus capitis muscle, quadriceps muscle, brachiocephalic artery (supplies blood to the arm and head) cardi-, coron- the heart great cardiac vein (a vein draining the heart muscle), coronary artery carp- the wrist carpal bones (bones after the wrist joint) cerebr-, encephal- the brain cerebrospinal fluid (fluid circulating around the brain and spinal cord), encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) cervic- the neck cervical spine, cervix (neck of the uterus) cholecyst- the gallbladder cholecystectomy (removal of the gallbladder) chondr- cartilage chondromalacia (softening of the cartilage) cyst- bladder cystic duct (vessel leading to/from the gallbladder) clav-, cleid- collar bone clavicle, sternocleidomastoid (neck muscle) col-, colo-, colono- the colon/large intestine colonoscopy condyl- a knuckle/knob femoral condyle (bony prominence at the knee joint) cost-, pleur- the ribs costal cartilage (cartilage between ribs and sternum) cran- the skull cranium (bones that encase the brain) cut-, derm- the skin cutaneous nerve, dermis (layer of skin) cyt- cell cytoplasm (fluid within a cell) 15 dendr- tree dendrites (branches of a nerve cell) digit- the fingers flexor digitorum superficialis (muscle in the forearm) enter- the intestines enterology (study of the intestines) gang- collection of nerve cell bodies (Greek for ‘a swelling’) dorsal root ganglion gastro- the stomach gastric ulcer (ulcer in the stomach) gloss-, glott-, lingu-, lingu- the tongue glossopharyngeal nerve glut- buttocks gluteus maximus muscle gyno-, gyneco- woman gynecomastia (enlarged breast tissue in men) hemat-, hemato-, hema-, blood hemo- hematocrit (red blood cell content of blood) hepat- the liver hepatocytes (main functional cells of the liver) kary- nucleus karyote (cell with a nucleus) lumb- loin, lower spine region lumbosacral plexus (nerves arising from the lumbar and sacral regions of the spine) muscul-, myo- muscle musculocutaneous nerve, myofibril (muscle fiber) myel- spinal cord myelencephalon (embryonic division of the central nervous system) neph-, ren- the kidney nephritis (inflammation of the kidney), renal artery neuro- nerves and the nervous system neuroanatomy (anatomy of the nervous system) 16 occipit- back of the head external occipital protuberance ocul-, ophthalm- the eye oculomotor nerve, ophthalmic artery omo- shoulder omohyoid muscle onco- tumor oncology (the study of tumors) osse-, ossi-, ost(eo)- bone osteoporosis (low bone mass) pect- chest pectoralis major muscle ped- foot dorsalis pedis artery plant-, sole-, tars- sole of foot plantar flexion, soleus muscle, tarsal bones pne(um)-, pneumon-, the lungs pulmon-, pulmo- pneumonia (an infection in the lungs), pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs) poll- thumb abductor pollicis muscle poplit- knee joint, behind the knee popliteal artery spin-, spondyl- the spine/vertebrae erector spinae (muscles along the spine), spondylitis (inflammation in the spine) splen- the spleen splenic artery tal- ankle talus bone thorac- chest region thoracic spine 17 thromb- blood clot thrombus vas-, vasculo- blood vessel vasoconstriction (narrowing of a blood vessel lumen) ven-, (phlebo) veins, venous blood superior vena cava (large vein that empties into the right atrium of the heart) viscer- the internal organs visceral pericardium (a layer of the heart wall) Common prefixes related to location (with examples) ambi-, amphi- on both sides, double ambidextrous (can use both hands equally), amphicrania (pain affecting both sides of the head) bas- pertaining to the base basiocciput (part of the occipital bone in front of the foramen magnum) caud- tail caudal cort- outer region, bark cerebral cortex (outer region of the brain), renal cortex (outer region of the kidney) di-, dia- between diaphragm (muscle wall between the thoracic and abdominal cavities) dors-, dors(i)- pertaining to the back latissimus dorsi (superficial muscle of the back) e-, ec(to)-, ex(o)-, extra- on the outside ectoderm (outer layer of embryologic germ cells), extradural (outside the dura mater of the meninges) em-, en(do)- inside, within embolism (a blockage inside a blood vessel), endocardium (within the heart) epi- over, above, on top epidermis (top layer of skin) 18 fore- before or ahead forearm (part of the arm between the wrist and elbow) fron- pertaining to the forehead frontal bone (skull bone that makes up the forehead) hypo- below hypothalamus (below the thalamus) infra- below infraorbital (below the orbit) inter- between, among intercostal (between the ribs) intra- within intramuscular (within the muscle) ipsi- same ipsilateral (on the same side) juxta- near to, beside or next to juxtaglomerular apparatus (beside the glomerulus) lat- side fascia lata (fascia on the side of the thigh) met-, meta- after, change metacarpals (after the carpus or wrist) para- beside, next to paravertebral (beside the vertebrae) peri- surrounding, around peritoneum (serous membrane surrounding many abdominal organs) post- after, behind posterior (to the back), post-mortem (examination of a body after death) pre-, pro- before prenatal (before birth), pronephros (before the kidney) radic- the beginning or root of a structure, usually a nerve or vein radiculopathy (a pinched nerve root) retro- backward, behind retroperitoneal (behind the peritoneum) 19 sub- beneath, under subclavian (under the clavicle) super-, supra- above, over, superior to supraspinatus (a muscle above or superior to the spine of the scapula) trans- across transpyloric (across the pylorus region of the stomach) ventro- to the front ventral Common prefixes related to direction or speed of movement (with examples) ab- away from abduct (move away from the body) ad-, af- toward adduct (move towards the body), afferent (movement towards the heart or brain) brady- slow bradycardia (slow heart rate) circum- to go/move around something circumduct (move in a circle) de- down deglutination (swallow down) ef- away from efferent (movement away from the heart or brain) kine- movement kinesiology (the study of movement) tachy- fast tachycardia (fast heart rate) trans- something is moving, (also across) transfusion (movement of blood) 20  Other common prefixes and their related descriptions (with examples) a-, an- not, without anucleate cell (a cell without a nucleus), analgesia (without pain) ankyl-, ancyl- crooked ankylosing spondylitis (a type of arthritis that affects the spine) bi-, di-, two, double biceps brachii (muscle in the arm with two heads) cric- ring cricoid cartilage (of the larynx) di-, dif-, dis- apart, separation dilation, dissection dys- difficult, abnormal, defective dysentery (abnormal functioning of the intestines) eu- good, true, new, eupnea (normal breathing) fasc- bandage thoracolumbar fascia fasci- bundle fasciculus cuneatus (bundle of nerves in the spinal cord) fenestr- window fenestrated endothelium foram- opening, hole foramen magnum hyper- excessive, above normal hypertension (above normal pressure in blood vessels) hypo- low, below normal hypotension (below normal pressure in blood vessels) iso- equal isometric (re: muscle contraction = muscle contraction with no change in length) 21 kyph- humped kyphosis (overcurvature in the thoracic spine) magn- great foramen magnus (hole in the occipital bone for the spinal cord) macro-, meg(a)-, megal(o)- large, enlargement , macrophage (large cell), megaloencephaly (abnormally large brain) meat- passage acoustic meatus micr- small microorganism morph- shape morphology oligo- few oligodendrocytes (type of neural cell that form the myelin sheath in the central nervous system) parvo- small parvocellular (small cells – type of cell in the lateral geniculate nucleus) poly- many, multiple polymyositis (inflammation in many muscles) pseud- fake, false pseudostratified epithelium (not really layered) quad- to make square, also four quadratus lumborum muscle, quadriceps (four headed muscle in the anterior thigh) rect- straight rectus femoris muscle sarco- flesh-like, muscle sarcoma (tumor in connective tissue) scler- hard sclera (part of the eye) semi- half, partly semitendinosus (one part of the hamstring muscle group) 22 steno- narrow spinal stenosis (narrowing of the vertebral canal in which the spinal cord runs) styl- pillar, stalk styloid process tect- roof optic tectum (most superior part of the midbrain) tel- far off, distant telencephalon (embryologic division of the brain) tetan- rigid, tense tetanus (rigidity in muscles) ter- round, smooth teres major muscle tri- three tricuspid valve (located between the right atrium and ventricle of the heart) trochlea- pulley trochlear nerve tuber- bump, lump gluteal tuberosity (located on the femur, attachment site for gluteus maximus) uni- one unilateral (on one side) vag- wandering, undecided vagus nerve vast- large area, immense vastus lateralis muscle 23