Educational Psychology PDF

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOG Prepared by:Y Leane Kimber Rubia  Contents 1.Introduction to Psychology and Education 2.Learning Process 3.Student Development 4.Student Diversity 5.Students with Special Educational Needs 6.Student Motivation 7.Classroom Management and...

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOG Prepared by:Y Leane Kimber Rubia  Contents 1.Introduction to Psychology and Education 2.Learning Process 3.Student Development 4.Student Diversity 5.Students with Special Educational Needs 6.Student Motivation 7.Classroom Management and Learning Environment 8.The nature of Classroom Communication 9.Facilitating Complex Thinking 10.Teacher-made assessment Strategies 11.Standardized and other formal  WHAT IS LEARNING Learning is generally defined as relatively permanent changes in behavior, skills, knowledge, or attitudes resulting from identifiable psychological or social experiences. A key feature is permanence: changes do not count as learning if they are temporary.  For teachers, learning usually Teacher’s refers to things that happen in schools or classrooms, even Perspectiv though every teacher can of e on course describe examples of learning that happen outside Learning of these places. In particular, teachers’ perspectives on learning often emphasize three ideas, and sometimes even take them for granted: (1) curriculum content and academic achievement, (2) sequencing and readiness, and (3) the importance of transferring learning to new or future Reading Readiness in Students VS. Teachers  Major Theories and Modes of Learning educational psychologists have developed a number of theories and concepts that are relevant to classrooms. It is helpful to group the theories according to whether they focus on changes in behavior or in thinking. Behaviorism: Changes in what students do Behaviorism is a perspective on learning that focuses on changes in individuals’ observable behaviors— changes in what people say or do. Behaviorist rely primarily on two basic images or models of behavioral learning, called respondent (or “classical”) conditioning and operant conditioning.  begins with the BEHAVIORIS involuntary responses to particular sights, M sounds, or other Respondent or sensations (Lavond, Classical 2003). Conditioning Involuntary stimuliand responses were first studiedsystematically early in the twentieth- century by the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov  Pavlov’s most well- BEHAVIORIS known work did not involve humans, but M dogs, and specifically Respondent or their involuntary Classical tendency to salivate Conditioning when eating. He attached a small tube to the side of dogs’ mouths that allowed him to measure how much the dogs  But he soon noticed a “problem” with the procedure: as the dogs gained experience with the experiment, they often salivated before they began eating. In fact the most experienced dogs sometimes began salivating before they even saw any food, simply when Pavlov himself entered the room! The sight of the experimenter, which had originally been a neutral experience for the dogs, became associated with the dogs’ original salivation response. Eventually, in fact, the dogs would salivate at the sight of Pavlov even if he did not ELEMENTS Respondent Conditioning and Students KEY IDEAS the disappearance of a ABOUT link between the RESPONDENT conditioned stimulus and the conditioned CONDITIONING response. Note, though, that EXTINCTION whether the conditioned stimulus is positive or negative, extinction does not happen suddenly or KEY IDEAS the tendency for similar stimuli to elicit a ABOUT conditioned response. RESPONDENT If he paired a specific bell with the sight of food, CONDITIONING making it a conditioned GENERALIZATIO stimulus for salivation, N other bells with different pitches or sounds also triggered salivation, though less effectively than the original bell. KEY IDEAS ABOUT the individual has learned to distinguish or RESPONDENT respond differently to CONDITIONING one stimulus than to another. DISCRIMINATIO the conditioned N associations happen only to a single version of the unconditioned stimuli  focuses on how the BEHAVIORIS effects of M consequences on Operant behaviors. The Conditioning operant model of learning begins with the idea that certain consequences tend to make certain behaviors happen more frequently.  If I compliment a BEHAVIORIS student for a good comment during a M discussion, there is more of a chance that Operant I will hear comments Conditioning from the student more often in the future Pioneer is Harvard professor named B. F. Skinner  The Rat Experiment The rat had “discovered” that the consequence of pressing the level was to receive food. He called the food pellets the reinforcement (product of action) and the lever-pressing the operant (action done) Activity: Which is reinforcement and which is operant 1. A seventh-grade boy makes a silly face at the girl sitting next to him. Classmates sitting around them giggle in response. 2. A kindergarten child raises her hand in response to the teacher’s question about a story. The teacher calls on her and she makes her comment. 3. Another kindergarten child blurts out her comment without being called on. The teacher frowns, ignores this behavior, but before the teacher calls on a different student, classmates are listening attentively to the student even though he did not raise his hand  Activity: 4 A twelfth-grade student—a member of the track team —runs one mile during practice. He notes the time it takes him as well as his increase in speed since joining the team. 5 A child who is usually very restless sits for five minutes doing an assignment. The teaching assistant compliments him for working hard. 6 A sixth-grader takes home a book from the classroom library to read overnight. When she returns the book the next morning, her teacher puts a gold star by her name KEY IDEAS the reinforcement for ABOUT an activity can sometimes be the OPERANT activity itself. CONDITIONING When a student reads a INTRINSIC book for the sheer MOTIVATION enjoyment of reading, for example, he is reinforced by the reading itself; then we often say that his reading is “intrinsically KEY IDEAS another part of the reinforcement came ABOUT from consequences or OPERANT experiences not inherently part of the CONDITIONING activity or behavior EXTRINSIC itself. MOTIVATION The boy who made a face was reinforced not only by the pleasure of making a face, for example, but also by the  Comparison Term As defined in respondent As defined in operant conditioning conditioning Disappearance of the Disappearance of an association operant Extinction between a behavior due to lack of conditioned stimulus and a reinforcement conditioned response Tendency of behaviors Ability of stimulus similar to the similar to operant to be Generalization conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned along with the conditioned response original operant  Comparison Learning not to emit Learning not to respond to stimuli that behaviors that are are Discrimination similar similar to the originally conditioned to the originally stimulus conditioned operant The pattern or frequency The pattern or frequency by which a Schedule of by which a reinforcement CS is paired with the UCS during Reinforcement is a consequence of an learning operant during learning Stimulus prior to the operant Cue Not applicable that signals the availability or not of reinforcement Constructivism: Changes in how students think Constructivism is a perspective on learning focused on how students actively create (or “construct”) knowledge out of experiences. Constructivist models of learning differ about how much a learner constructs knowledge independently, compared to how much he or she takes cues from people who may be more of an expertand who help the learner'sefforts (Fosnot, 2005;Rockmore, 2005).  a person learns by CONSTRUCTIVIS mentally organizing and reorganizing new M information or Psychological experiences. Constructivism The organization happens partly by relating new experiences to prior knowledge that is already meaningful and well understood. JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE THEORY A more recent example of psychological constructivism Piaget described learning as interplay between two mental activities that he called assimilation and accommodation PSYCHOLOGICAL is the interpretation of CONSTRUCTIVISM new information in COGNITIVE terms of pre-existing THEORY concepts, information or Assimilation ideas. A preschool child who already understands the concept of bird, for example, might initially label any flying object with this term—even butterflies or PSYCHOLOGICAL the revision or CONSTRUCTIVISM modification of pre- COGNITIVE existing concepts in THEORY terms of new Accommodation information or experience. The preschooler initially generalizes the concept of a bird to include any flying object but eventually refines it to include only specific birds, like robins and Cognitive Equilibrium assimilation and accommodation work together to enrich a child’s thinking a balance between reliance on prior information and openness to new information. consists of an ever-growing repertoire of mental representations for objects and experiences. Piaget called each mental representation a schema (all of them together—the plural—was called schemata). A schema was not merely a concept, but an elaborated mixture of vocabulary, actions, and experience related to the concept. Schema/ Schemata A child’s schema for bird, for example, includes not only the relevant verbal knowledge (like knowing how to define the word “bird”), but also the child’s experiences with birds, pictures of birds, and conversations about birds.  Learning According to Piaget: Assimilation + Accommodation → Equilibrium → Schemata CONSTRUCTIVIS focused on the M relationships and Social interactions between a Constructivism learner and more knowledgeable and experienced individuals. SOCIAL students could usually CONSTRUCTIVISM Jerome Brunner learn more than had been traditionally expected as long as they were given Instructional appropriate guidance Scaffolding and resources. a temporary framework, like one used in constructing a building, that allows a much stronger structure to be built within it.  writing focused on how a child’s or novice’s thinking is influenced by relationships SOCIAL with others who are more capable, knowledgeable, or CONSTRUCTIVIS expert than the learner. M Vygotsky proposed that when Lev Vygotsky a child (or any novice) is learning a new skill or solving a new problem, he or she can perform better if accompanied and helped by an expert than if performing SOCIAL the difference between CONSTRUCTIVISM solo performance and assisted performance Lev Vygotsky the place/ area of immediate change Initially during learning, Zone of knowledge or skill is Proximal found mostly “in” the Development expert helper. If the expert is skilled and motivated to help, then the expert arranges experiences that allow the novice to practice crucial skills or to construct new knowledge.  Learning According to Vygotsky: Novice → Zone of Proximal Development ← Expert (ZPD) Implications of Constructivism for Teaching Bloom’s Taxonomy- , describes six kinds of learning goals that teachers can in principle expect from students, ranging from simple recall of knowledge to complex evaluation of knowledge.  Bloom’s Taxonomy Example Category or type of (with apologies to Definition thinking Goldilocks and her bear friends!) List three things Remembering or recalling facts, Knowledge Goldilocks did in the information, or procedures three bears’ house. Explain why Goldilocks Understanding facts, Comprehension liked the little interpreting information bear’s chair the best.  Bloom’s Taxonomy Example (with apologies to Goldilocks Category or type of thinking Definition and her bear friends!) Using concepts in new Predict some of the things that Application situations, solving particular Goldilocks might have used problems if she had entered your house. Select the part Distinguish parts of the story Analysis of information, a concept, where Goldilocks seemed most or a procedure comfortable.  Bloom’s Taxonomy Example (with apologies to Goldilocks Category or type of thinking Definition and her bear friends!) Combining elements or parts Tell how the story would into Synthesis have been different if it a new object, idea, or had been about three fishes. procedure Assessing and judging Decide whether Goldilocks was a the value or ideas, objects, Evaluation bad or materials in a girl, and justify your position. particular situation  References: Alberto, P. & Troutman, A. (2005). Applied behavioranalysis for teachers,7th edition. UpperSaddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Anderson, L. &Krathwohl, D. (Eds.).(2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman. Bruner, J. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1966).Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bruner, J. (1996). The culture of education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Copple, C. & Bredekamp, S. (2006). Basicsof developmentally appropriate practice. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children. Dewey, J. (1938/1998). How we think. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Ferster, C., Skinner,B. F., Cheney, C., Morse,W., & Dews,D. Schedules of reinforcement. NewYork: Copley Publishing Group. Fosnot, C. (Ed.).(2005). Constructivism: Theory, perspectives, and practice, 2nd edition. New York: Teachers College Press. Gardner, H. (1999).Intelligence reframed:Multiple intelligences for the 21st century. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (2006). The development and education of the mind. New York: Routledge. Thank You