Motivation and Performance in Sport PDF

○ Should be appropriate to the performance of behavior ○ Should be given as immediately as possible (practice vs. contest) ○ Should promote personal responsibility for performance or behavior ○ Should be short, clear, and level-appropriate Creatin...

○ Should be appropriate to the performance of behavior ○ Should be given as immediately as possible (practice vs. contest) ○ Should promote personal responsibility for performance or behavior ○ Should be short, clear, and level-appropriate Creating Effective Behavioral Programs ○ Emphasize specific, detailed and frequent measurement of behavior and performance ○ Recognize the difference between developing new behavior and maintaining existing behavior ○ Encourage participants to improve against previous performance levels ○ Emphasize the importance of accurate performance or behavior monitoring by coaches Plan of Action ○ Target of behaviors ○ Define the target of behaviors and communicate them ○ Record behaviors ○ Provide meaningful feedback ○ State the outcomes clearly ○ Individualize reward system Motivation and Reward Undermining Intrinsic Motivation ○ Does getting paid for a job make an activity less enjoyable? Cognitive Evaluation Theory Controlling Aspect of Rewards ○ Rewards are seen as an attempt to control behavior, thus making them outside the control of the participant “I will give you this money or these shifts only because you are doing the things I want you to do.” Functional Significance of the Event ○ How the reward will affect intrinsic motivation depends on whether the recipient perceives it to be more controlling or more informational. Informational Aspect of Rewards Rewards should be based on specific levels of competence or behavior They should have specific value Influence of Extrinsic Reward on Intrinsic Motivation Scholarship (Ryan, 1977, 1980) ○ Scholarship football players enjoy participation less than non scholarship players ○ Scholarship players exhibited less intrinsic motivation and enjoyment each year ○ Male wrestlers and female athletes from 6 different sports contradicted these data ○ Controlling? Or Informational? ○ Football and basketball revenues Competition ○ Participants exhibit higher intrinsic motivation after success than after failure ○ People who perceived that they performed well showed higher levels of intrinsic motivation Feedback ○ Positive feedback results in higher perceived competence and intrinsic motivation than negative or no feedback Other Factors That Improve Intrinsic Motivation ○ Autonomous (lets you do it how you want to w/same results) vs. Controlling (mindless robot) ○ Participation in recreational vs. competitive league ○ High vs. Low levels of perceived competence ○ High vs. low levels of perceived control Increasing Intrinsic Motivation Provide success Give reward based on performance Use verbal and nonverbal praise Vary content and sequence of practice drills Involve participants in decision-making process Set realistic performance goals Flow State In The Zone ○ The balance between one’s perceived skill and challenge Ex. golf swing → hitting a “perfect” ball Flow Requires: ○ Complete absorption in the activity as if the rest of the world has disappeared ○ Clearly defined goals Flow State Total concentration Total loss of self-consciousness  Reward is doing the activity itself Achieving Flow ○ Motivation to perform ○ Maintaining appropriate focus ○ Confidence ○ FEEL GOOD, LOOK GOOD, PLAY GOOD (feeling good about physical preparation makes mental preparation good as well) Controllability of Flow ○ Perception vs. Reality Any attempt to control flow state actually makes it worse Factors That Disrupt or Prevent Flow ○ Which factors you can control and which you can not What can you control? = how you can respond to those things Arousal Mental and physical activation level manifesting in motivation at a particular moment ○ When you slide in winter when driving*** Anxiety Negative emotional state in reaction to arousal ○ Nervousness / worry State Anxiety ○ Right here, right now anxiety (what you feel right now, at this time, doing this task, today) Somatic State Anxiety ○ Moment to moment changes (can be “measured” - heart rate, respiration rate, etc.) Cognitive State Anxiety ○ Being able to calm down (deep breaths) Trait Anxiety ○ How you normally are around friends, family, etc. Stay calm under pressure, or not? Measuring Arousal and Anxiety Self report scales and measures Survey reports ○ Competitive state anxiety inventory-2 (CSAI-2) ○ Sport Competition Trait Anxiety Test (SCAT) Stress Imbalance of how you feel and how you THINK you are supposed to feel Understand Stress Stage 1 : Environmental Demand ○ Some environmental stimulus is imposing a physical or psychological demand Stage 2 : Perception of Demand ○ The perception of stress A person’s trait anxiety greatly influences stress perception Stage 3: Stress Response ○ Physical, psychological, and physiological responses to stress Things you can measure (heart rate, blood pressure, etc.) and things you can’t measure (worry, panic, racing brain, etc.) Stage 4: Behavioral Consequences ○ What does the reaction actually do? → provides feedback / evaluation Implications for Practice Understanding of cause and consequence can aid us in developing a stress management program Understanding the demands, participants, reactions, and behaviors. ○ Environment, responses, and results Sources of Stress and Anxiety Situational Sources ○ Event importance ○ Uncertainty Ex. us college kids playing against 6th graders Personal Sources ○ Trait anxiety ○ Self-esteem ○ Social Physique Anxiety Situational Sources  Event Importance ○ The more important something is, the more stressful it is Uncertainty ○ The more uncertainty, the more anxiety and stress Personal Sources Trait Anxiety ○ High trait anxiety and low self-esteem are related to heightened state anxiety reactions in athletes Self-Esteem ○ Participants with low self-esteem have less confidence and experience more state anxiety than do athletes with high self-esteem Social Physique Anxiety ○ When people become anxious when other observe their physique in exercise ○ Becoming nervous when others evaluate their bodies ***People with high social physique anxiety will avoid fitness settings Arousal, Anxiety, and Performance Drive Theory ○ As arousal goes up, performance goes up Does not incorporate over-aroused states Inverted U Hypothesis ○ Underaroused = poor performance ○ Overaroused = poor performance ○ Optimally Aroused (moderate) = maximum performance Individualized Zones of Optimal Functioning ○ High point Multidimensional Anxiety Theory ○ Predicts that cognitive state anxiety (worry) is negatively related to performance. ○ Somatic state anxiety is related to performance in the inverted U Catastrophe Model ○ Arousal is related to performance but only when an athlete is NOT worried Point at which additional arousal will push them off a cliff Reversal Theory ○ The way in which arousal affects performance depends on an individual’s interpretation of arousal level Anxiety Direction and Intensity  ○ Facilitative Anxiety Arousal is getting me fired up Feels in control of outcome ○ Debilitative Anxiety Too excited and too aroused = feels nervous / feel like shit Negative impact on performance when not in control of outcome ○ Perception of Control How you think and feel like you are in control*** Critical determinate whether anxiety is will be viewed as facilitative or debilitative *** How you actually feel doesn’t matter.. “It’s not about getting rid of the butterflies, it’s about getting them to fly in formation.” Significance of Arousal-Performance Views Arousal is multi-faceted phenomenon Arousal and state anxiety do not necessarily have a negative influence on performance Some sort of arousal leads to peak performance Muscle Tension, Fatigue, and Coordination Difficulties “I tensed up” “I didn’t feel right” ○ Sometimes you need to be relaxed in scenarios Attention, Concentration, and Visual Search Changes Attention Field ○ Shift in arousal and focus to the task or event at hand (Tunnel Vision) Professional Practice Identify optimal arousal - Related Emotions Recognize interaction of personal and situational factors Recognize arousal and state anxiety signs Individualize coaching strategies Develop performer confidence Recognize Arousal and State Anxiety Signs Physiological sign and symptoms ○ Cold clammy hands ○ Need to pee ○ Profuse sweating ○ Negative self-talk  ○ Abnormally long colds ○ Motivation You CANNOT motivate someone ○ You CAN inspire ○ You CAN incite ○ You CAN guide The direction and intensity of one’s effort Direction of Effort Individual who seeks out, approaches or is attracted to certain situation ○ Do you attend class? Go to class, turn in homework, and work with professor Intensity of Effort Refers to how much effort a person puts forth in a certain situation ○ Do you take notes, study / review notes, make comments, etc. Relationship Between Direction and Intensity Ex. **If you attend class regularly, you will generally also put forth effort Vagueness of Motivation Someone who uses the word to describe someone as being ‘motivating’ ○ Nobody can motivate someone, only YOU can motivate YOU Three Approaches to Understanding Motivation Trait-Centered View ○ Motivated behavior from individual characteristics Situational-Centered View ○ Motivation level determined by situation Interactional View ○ Considers both the person traits and the situation Building Motivation Consider both situations and traits in motivating people  Understand people’s multiple motives for involvement Change the environment to enhance motivation Influence motivation - manipulate to it being THEIR idea Use behavior modification to change undesirable participant motives Consider Situation and Traits Respond to players personality and interaction of personal and situational characteristics ○ Coaches will give positivity and acknowledge the value of contribution ○ How to improve motivation for individual Understand People’s Motives for Involvement Why people participate in physical activity: ○ Competing motives ○ Shared motives ○ Cultural motives Observe and monitor patients motives Change the Environment to Enhance Motivation Provide both competition and recreation Provide multiple opportunities Adjust to individuals within groups ○ Somethings are new or different for some people (so have plans to progress and regress everything) Influence Motivation How do we influence motivation? ○ Through punishments, constructive criticism, positive feedback, encouragement, praise, etc. Behavior Modification to Change Undesirable Participant Motives What are the patient's motives for engaging in an exercise pain? How to convince patient’s the ultimate goal is worth it if exercise is painful itself..? ○ Uncle who refuses to exercise because he doesn’t enjoy it (at risk of having heart attack) Achievement Motivation and Competitiveness Achievement Motivation ○ Mastery, excellence, perform better than others, pride Competitiveness  ○ Striving for satisfaction when making comparisons with some standard of excellence in the presence of evaluation others COMPARISON Need Achievement Theory Task preference and performance predictions ○ “I can meet my own needs by myself.” Need Achievement Theory = framework for motivation explanations ○ “Are you motivated for success or do you avoid failure?” Attribution Theory Attributions as cause of success and failure ○ Talent or luck? (stable vs. unstable) ○ Effort or weak competition? (internal vs. external) ○ Strategy or weather? (controllability) Why are attributions important? ○ How we explain / relate our performances can influence our future motivations Achievement Goal Theory Motivated by outcome = motivated by the end product ○ Very important but can’t be the only goal ○ Outcome / Result = out of control ○ Process / Task = IN CONTROL Social Goal Orientation Motivated by the social connections of being in the group Individuals judge their competence in terms of affiliation with the group of recognition from being liked by others Entity Versus Incremental Goal Perspectives Outcome focused goals only or look at / embrace the process? ○ Those who embrace process are more successful Outcome = emotional and thinks of trials stopping them from the goal Process = find other ways to complete something along the way (“never give up”) *** People are motivated to feel worthy / competent Autonomous Competence Stage  Early development Mastering environment and their place in it Children ○ “Worry about your self papa, I can do it myself.” Social Comparison Stage Focus on directly comparing performance to others Comparing = Competing Integrated Stage Understanding our own place in our particular group or environment ○ Knowing when to compete when it is okay (compare self to others) and when to compare yourself to yourself from a week ago Influencing Developmental Stages How do parents, teachers, coaches and peers influence our development in motivation and competition? Professional Practice Recognize interactional factors in achievement motivation Emphasize task goals Monitor and later attributional feedback Assess and correct inappropriate attributions Determine when competitive goals are appropriate Enhance feelings of competence and control