Biodiversity and Conservation PDF

Biodiversity and Conservation Biodiversity literally means diversity of life that exists on earth. The term biodiversity was given by Walter G. Rosen (1985) as a compound word for the term 'Biological Diversity’ originally proposed by Lovejoy (1980) as the number of species in a community...

Biodiversity and Conservation Biodiversity literally means diversity of life that exists on earth. The term biodiversity was given by Walter G. Rosen (1985) as a compound word for the term 'Biological Diversity’ originally proposed by Lovejoy (1980) as the number of species in a community. It occurs at all the levels of biological organization beginning from the level of population to the level of biosphere. Therefore, it can be defined as the variation and the variability present in the living world (the biosphere) within and among the populations, species, or the ecosystems (both terrestrial and aquatic). Mostly it is studied at three levels, genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. Levels of biological diversity Genetic Diversity It is the variation in the genetic material among organisms of a species. It is found both within as well as between populations of a species (define?). For example, variation within and between populations of humans (Homo sapiens) found in different continents like Asia, Africa, Europe, or various varieties of rice (Oryza sativa), or mango (Mangifera indica). This variation is because of the differences in the genetic make-up (nucleotide sequence of DNA) of organisms of species. This involves occurrence of variety of versions of a gene (alleles). Numerous combinations of different genes among individuals of a species. Sources of this variation include phenomenon like genetic recombination (sexual reproduction) and mutations in the DNA. Species: a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes or interbreeding. Gene: A specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA that is located usually on a chromosome and that is the functional unit of inheritance. Gene contain code for specific protein (hair color), and Chromosome is a structure in cell nucleus which contain several genes. Alleles: Each of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. Nucleic acids: Nucleic acids are the main information-carrying molecules of the cell, and, by directing the process of protein synthesis, they determine the inherited characteristics of every living thing. The two main classes of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).  Genetic Diversity Therefore, no two individuals of a population are ever identical; there is always slight difference in their genetic make-up. This variation forms the basis for natural selection and adaptations to changing environmental conditions and therefore, is highly important for survival of a species. Species diversity It refers to the variety of species present in a community. However, not all the species present in a community are found in equal proportions; usually, some species are relatively more abundant than others. Therefore, the species diversity of an area or a community has two components: a) species richness or variety component, that represents the total number of species per unit area (species density), and b) the relative abundance that represents the relative proportion of each species in an area (i.e. number of individuals of each species are also considered to estimate relative abundance of each species over others in an area). Imagine two communities having an equal number of species per unit area for example 5, however, community 1 has 2 individuals of each species (total 10 individuals), while community 2 has 6 individuals of one species and 1 individual of each of the rest four species. So, though the two communities have the same species richness they differ in the relative proportion of each species or in other words, community 2 is less even in terms of the distribution of species over the number of individuals. This property of a community is also called as species evenness. Ecosystem diversity It is the measure of ecological variation. It includes: (a) variety of niches (the niche of an organism is the functional role that it plays within an ecosystem), (b) trophic levels, (c) relationship among organisms viz. parasitism, predator-prey relationship, mutualistic associations, etc., and (d) ecological processes that are vital for sustaining ecosystems. For example, a forest community is more ecologically diverse than a wheat field because it has a variety of relationship among different species, different species are having different trophic positions and functions. An ecosystem is referred to as ‘natural’ when it is undisturbed by human activities, or ‘modified/managed/artificial’ when it is managed completely by humans, such as agriculture field, aquarium, garden. A natural ecosystem is self-sustainable, whereas, an artificial ecosystem is not. The artificial ecosystem will collapse without human intervention. It also includes variation in terms of variety of ecosystems found within larger geographical region like forests, prairies, deserts, freshwater wetlands, lakes, rivers, coral reefs, estuaries etc., in a landscape, country, sub-continent, or a continent. For example, India has rich ecological diversity. E.g., India has high ecosystem diversity than Egypt. Biogeographic zones of India Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in space and time. Plants and animal vary in a geographical region: Gradients of latitude and altitude create different climatic conditions (temperature, humidity, and rainfall). Geographical barriers like seas, oceans, mountains affect the distribution of organisms. India represents a large geographical region (area 3.28 million sq. km) and is the seventh-largest country in the world. India exhibits a great variety of climatic conditions owing to its geographical position w.r.t. equator and proximity to seas, geographical extent (latitudinal variation), and topography (altitudinal variation). Most part of India is situated in tropical to subtropical zone, that results in conducive temperatures for plant growth and development. The rainfall, second important climatic factor, also varies hugely in different parts of the country. India receives rains from the southwest monsoons originating in the Arabian Sea as well as the Bay of Bengal. El Nino (the boy in Spanish): The temperature of water in the pacific ocean in warmer, which influences the wind above it. Stronger El Nino changes the movement of wind and India receive poor monsoon. La Nina (the girl): The temperature of the water is colder than normal, and the wind movement is strong towards India. The monsoon is good during the La Nina phase. Biogeographic zones of India The range of topography, further affects temperature and rainfall in different parts of the country. Consequently, a great variety of climates are found across the country and this has resulted in great variety of plant and animal species, communities, habitats, or ecosystems (biological diversity) on the Indian subcontinent. Roger and Panwar (1988): India is has been divided into 10 bio-geographic zones such that each biogeographic zone represents a geographical area having similar species of plants and animals, communities, ecosystems, and ecology. Further divided into biotic provinces. Zone 1: The Trans-Himalayan: This zone is located in the rain-shadow zone beyond the Greater Himalaya covering 5.6% of total geographical area of India. It is divided into three biotic provinces: Ladakh Mountains (Kargil, Nubra, and Zanskar in Jammu & Kashmir, and Lahaul and Spiti in Himachal Pradesh), Tibetan Plateau (eastern Ladakh and adjacent parts of Spiti), and Sikkim Plateau. Himalayas block monsoon, so these zones receive less rainfall. Temperature: -40 to 25 degree Celsius Rainfall: less than 350 mm Altitude: 5000 - 6000 m Flora: Treeless vegetation, Alpine steppe Fauna: Wild sheep and goat species, wild yak, gazelle, snow leopard, Tibetan wolf.  Zone 2: The Himalaya: They are spread over 2,400 km in length across nations of Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal, China, Bhutan, and Myanmar. In India, the Himalaya are spread over states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, West Bengal, and Arunanchal Pradesh, accounting 6.41 % of India's total geographic area. This zone is divided into four biotic provinces - North-West Himalaya, West Himalaya, Central Himalaya, and East Himalaya. Temperature: -30 to 25 degree Celsius Rainfall: 1500 mm in the west to > 4800 mm in the east. Altitude: 100 - 8,850 m Flora: tropical and sub-tropical broadleaf wet forests at 99 % of all organisms that have ever lived on Earth are extinct. As new species evolve, they fit in ecological 'niches' and older species are removed. But the rate of extinction is not always constant. At least a handful of times in the last 500 million years, 75 to more than 90 percent of all species on Earth have disappeared in a geological blink of an eye in catastrophes we call mass extinctions. The most studied mass extinction, which marked the boundary between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods about 66 million years ago, killed off the non-avian dinosaurs and made room for mammals and birds to rapidly diversify and evolve. Earth is currently experiencing a biodiversity crisis. Recent estimates suggest that extinction threatens up to a million species of plants and animals, in large part because of human activities such as deforestation, hunting, and overfishing. Other serious threats include the spread of invasive species and diseases from human trade, as well as pollution and human-caused climate change. Data on 2900 land vertebrate species compiled by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and BirdLife International. The scientists identified 515 species with populations below 1000 and about half of these had fewer than 250 individuals remaining. Many land animals are on the brink of extinction, with fewer than 1000 individuals left, include the Sumatran rhino and the Española giant tortoise. Historic data for 77 of these species shows that they had lost 94% of their populations in the last century. Further, more than 400 vertebrate species became extinct in the last century, extinctions that would have taken up to 10 000 years in the normal course of evolution.  Ecosystem preservation and conservation strategies Preservation vs Conservation? Preservation: Ecosystem preservation means to implement strict actions to safeguard natural environment. It also means to restricts human activities in the area, therefore illegal activities like tree cutting and collecting forest produces can be penalized e.g., National parks are the examples of preservation strategies. National park has core and buffer areas. Tourism activities are only allowed in buffer areas. National park is made with the purpose of preserving the whole ecosystem. Conservation: Ecosystem conservation means regulated which advocates the safety of natural environment along with the right of humans to use the resources. E.g., Wildlife sanctuaries are the examples of conservation strategies. Wildlife sanctuaries are made with the purpose of the conservation of particular species like tiger, rhinoceros, elephants. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES In-situ conservation: It includes methods to conserve species in place of their natural habitat through legal means. In-situ conservation can be divided into following three types: National Park – National Parks are protected areas in which complete legal protection is provided to ecosystem. Therefore, biotic components as well as abiotic components are protected in these areas through legal means. National Parks are created on the basis of core-buffer strategy. Core area is central region of national park which is completely prohibited from human activities. Buffer zone is peripheral area of National Park which allows limited tourism. There is a specific boundry. Example – Jim Corbett National Park (Uttarakhand), Sariska (Rajasthan), Gir (Gujarat). Wildlife Sanctuary – Wildlife sanctuary is protected area which is created by government in order to conserve a particular species which may be of local, national or international significance. Wildlife sanctuaries are also created on the basis on core-buffer strategy. Core area is central region of wildlife sanctuary which is completely prohibited from human activities. Buffer region is peripheral region in which activities like tourism, fuelwood collection, and honey collection are allowed. No specific boundary. Example – Chilka Bird Sanctuary (Odisha), Gandhi Sagar (M.P.). Biosphere Reserves – These protected areas are based on the concept of including humans in conservation efforts. This concept was formulated during Man and Biosphere (MAB) programme of UNESCO. Biosphere reserves are protected areas, conserve biodiversity and provide livelihood to local communities. Multiple activities like forestry, agriculture, tourism etc. are permitted in peripheral region of Biosphere Reserve. Example- Nanda devi Biosphere Reserve (Uttarakhand),Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (South India). BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES Various strategies are used to increase population of the species which are on the verge of extinction. Broadly, methods to conserve biodiversity are of two types: Ex-situ conservation: In this method, plant or animal species are protected in a place which is outside their natural habitat. Ex-situ conservation is done by following methods: Zoo – These are places in which species are kept in artificial enclosures. Zoo serves purpose of educating citizens about wildlife. Various animal breeding programs are also carried out in zoo to increase population of species. Gene Bank- Genetic material of any species provides valuable details of its existence. Gene banks are those institutes in which genes of different species are preserved for future use. NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources) is an institute which store and preserve genes of plant species. Seed bank – Some Institutes are involved in preserving seeds of valuable plant species. These seeds may be used in future, if any plant species becomes extinct. IARI (Indian Agricultural Research Institute) is seed bank located in Delhi. Svalbard Global Seed Vault located in Norway. BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION STRATEGIES Umbrella species: species selected for making conservation-related decisions, typically because protecting these species indirectly protects the many other species that make up the ecological community of its habitat. Umbrella species include those species which are very important for maintenance of healthy ecosystem. For example, tiger is an umbrella species for forest ecosystem. Presence of top predator like tiger ensures maintenance of population of herbivores and producers. Such species lives in a large area and can move from one place to another. Keystone species – Keystone species are those which have an extremely high impact on a particular ecosystem relative to its population. Keystone are valuable species for any ecosystem. Such species help to maintain local biodiversity within a community either by controlling populations of other species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for a wide range of species. Absence of keystone species would result in collapse of ecosystem. For example, elephants are considered as keystone species. Elephants require large area to move around and also has requires high amount of food. Elephants controls the growth of small trees in grasslands. Presence of elephants in forest indicate that ecosystem is healthy and in good condition. Wolf also regulates the population of herbivories in an ecosystem. Fig tree provide food to many animals. Flagship species – Flagship species (charismatic species) are those species which are ecologically, culturally, emotionally significant in the society. Government highlight these species of any region in order to improve conservation efforts. For example, tiger is national animal of India. Awareness about presence of tiger in any forest will further enhance effectiveness of conservation efforts. Similarly, people are generally emotionally attached to Panda. Therefore during conservation efforts, government highlight that region has Panda species. This is done to increase effectiveness of conservation strategies. Indicator species – Indicator species are those species which are sensitive to variations in climatic conditions. These species respond quickly to any change in temperature or environment, therefore they act as indicator for overall health of ecosystem. For example, lichen and frogs are indicator species. Species Reintroduction and Translocation Relocation is defined as moving an animal (or group of animals) from one location to another location within the same home range. Translocation is defined as capturing, transporting, and moving a free animal (or group of animals) from one location to a new location which is significantly distant from their original home range or established territory. Translocation can be done to transport ecological material such as soil. Translocation is an important step to maintain population balance in ecosystem, to reduce human-animal conflicts, to increase or reduce population or for recreational or commercial purpose. Re-introduction is a type of translocation. Re-introduction is an attempt to establish a species in an area which was once part of its historical range, but from which it has become extinct (no longer found in that area). It is necessary to maintain a viable, free-ranging population in the wild of any species, which has become locally or globally extinct in the wild. Re-introduction is carried out to meet following objectives: to enhance the long-term survival of a species to re-establish a keystone species in an ecosystem to maintain and/or restore natural biodiversity to provide long-term economic benefits to the local and/or national economy to promote conservation awareness For example, Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan) faced sharp decline in tiger population during 2004-2008 due to poaching activities. In order to revive tiger population in Sariska Tiger Reserve, eight tigers from Ranthambore were re-introduced in Sariska Tiger Reserve.  Case Studies – Project Tiger Project tiger scheme is an on-going scheme under Ministry of Environment, forest and Climate Change. National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) is the immediate supervising agency. This scheme is focused on increasing number of tiger population in India. Tiger is an umbrella species because presence of tiger in forest also ensures appropriate population of herbivores and producer. Despite ecological and national importance of this animal, population has declined sharply because of excessive poaching activities. Back in the early 19th century, There were about 40,000 Royal Bengal Tigers in India. Within seven decades, Royal Bengal Tiger’s population dwindled to a mere 1800. Tiger population in India was observed to be 1827 in the year 1972. Thus there was need to increase population of this species. Habitat loss, poaching, hunting, human-animal conflicts. Project tiger scheme was launched in 1973 during tenure of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The project was launched in Jim Corbett National Park, Uttarakhand. Objectives of Project tiger: To ensure that any factor leading to the reduction of tiger habitats is limited. Any damages done to these habitats should be repaired so that the ecosystem is balanced Maintain a viable tiger population. Case Studies – Project Tiger Tiger census is conducted to count the tiger population. Camera traps and identification of pugmarks. For the sake of efficient management and tiger density-based administration, tiger reserves are created on the basis of a ‘core- buffer’ strategy. Project tiger was started in association with WWF and still gets its main funding from them. India has 70 per cent of the world’s tiger population. As a result of this scheme, number of tiger reserves has increased in India. Today, Project Tiger looks after 50 tiger reserves spread across 72,749 sq. km. of green cover in an effort to conserve the population of the Royal Bengal Tiger. Project tiger scheme has been successful in increasing number of tigers in India. India has 2967 tigers according to 2019 estimate.  Wildlife Conservation Trust Mohd-Azlan and Sharma 2003  Case Studies – Project Elephant Elephant is considered as keystone species because this animal requires large area for movement and require high amount of food. Only healthy ecosystem can support Elephants population. However, elephants are also excessively hunted for their tusk and are considered as endangered species. Elephants have also declined because of human-elephant conflict. This conflict may arise when elephant happen to raid crop field near forest or move into residential area. Development of railway track inside elephant habitat is another reason for decline in their number. Project Elephant is an on-going scheme under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (Government of India) focused on increasing elephant population in India. This scheme was launched in 1992. Project Elephant aim to increase population of elephants by creation of Elephant reserves as in-situ conservation strategy. It also aims to reduce human-elephant conflict and address welfare of captive elephants. Project Elephant has been successful in establishing 32 elephant reserves (Mysore Elephant Reserve, Nilgiri Elephant Reserve) in India. Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme has also been implemented under this scheme. Elephant corridors are linear, narrow, natural habitat linkages that allow elephants to move between secure habitats without being disturbed by humans. To secure a future for wild elephants it is essential that we ensure their uninterrupted movement between key habitats. 110 corridors. Case Studies – Vulture Breeding Programme Vultures are natural scavengers of ecosystem which feed on dead organisms and help in cleaning of ecosystem. Indian vulture is critically endangered species because population of these species has sharply declined with biomagnification. Diclofenac chemical (painkiller) was injected in cattle to make them work in farm areas for long time duration. After death of cattle, this chemical increased in concentration in Indian vultures (bioaccumulation in kidney). This chemical resulted in immediate death of members of Indian vulture. 4 crore in 1980s to 1 lakh in 2009, 19,000 as per 2019. Project Vulture was launched by Government of India in 2006 to increase population of Indian vultures. Led by Bombay Natural History Society. Following methods are used under this programme: 1) Diclofenac has been completely banned for veterinary use in Indian since 2006. 2) In-situ conservation strategy – Vulture Safe Zone (VSZ) have been declared in India. These VSZ are habitat of Indian vulture in which use of any chemical is strictly prohibited by the Indian Government. 3) Ex-situ conservation strategy –Four Vulture Conservation Breeding Centres have been established in India for breeding of this species. These centres are established at Guwahati (Assam), Pinjore (Haryana), Buxa (West Bengal) and Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh). In 2015, 10 birds were released into wild from Haryana. Case Studies – Project Great Indian Bustard Great Indian Bustard is one of the heaviest flying birds with an average weight of 15 to 18 kg. According to the estimate of 1969, the population of the bird was 1260. At that time, this bird was observed in geographical location of 11 states in India. Haryana, Punjab, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh were known as habitat of Great Indian Bustard. It is considered the flagship grassland species, representing the health of the grassland ecology. Today, population of bird is below 200 and therefore this bird is placed in the category of critically endangered species. Habitat of this bird is now restricted to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. However, with rampant hunting and declining grasslands, their population dwindled. Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) prepared a species recovery programme for the Great Indian Bustard, the Lesser Florican and the Bengal Florican, three of the four bustard species found in India. Launched in 2013, the programme aim to build enclosures and securing inviolate areas to ensure successful breeding of birds in the Desert National Park. A good number of birds are also found outside protected areas in Ajmer and Jaisalmer districts.  Case Studies – Crocodile conservation Crocodile is top predator of aquatic ecosystem and helps in maintaining population of fishes and other living organisms present in water bodies. Reason for decline – Habitat loss, breakage of eggs by movement of animals like elephants, human activities, poaching, sand mining. In India, following crocodile species have been observed: 1) Gharial – This is freshwater crocodile which is now critically endangered. Pollution of river is the reason behind decline in number of this species. 2) Mugger – This is also freshwater crocodile which is vulnerable in India. Construction of dams on rivers has resulted in sharp decline of this species. 3) Salt water crocodile – This crocodile used to be very common in coastal areas of Kerala and Tamil Nadu but now it is extinct in these states. Destruction of mangrove vegetation for development of coastal region result in decline of this species. Few members of this species are found in West Bengal and Odisha. P. Griffith  Sexual dimorphism in adult gharials: Gaurav Vashistha Unique male and female characteristics Walking on land Gaurav Vashistha H.R. Bustard had initiated crocodile survey in 1974 which clearly reflected sharp decline in their number. Project crocodile scheme was launched in 1975 to increase population of crocodile species. This scheme was launched by Government of India with support from United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and FAO. Many crocodile sanctuary like National Chambal Wildlife Sanctuary (Madhya Pradesh) have been established as in-situ conservation strategy for protection of crocodile in natural habitat. Sixteen crocodile rehabilitation centres have been established in India for breeding and rearing programmes. Objectives: (a) To protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating sanctuaries. (b) To rebuild natural population quickly through 'grow and release' or 'rear and release' technique involving the following phases of operation. Gaurav Vashistha (c) To promote captive breeding. Collection of eggs and safely incubating them. (d) To involve the local people Ex situ  In situ Artificial sand banks Vashistha et al. 2021, Ecol Solut Evid Loss of Gharial nesting habitat in Girwa River in Katerniaghat wildlife sanctuary due to shift in river channel (Vashistha et al. 2021 Sci. Reports) Case Studies – Silent Valley Movement Silent Valley Movement was initiated in 1978 to resist construction of dam on Kunthipuzha river of Silent Valley region, Kerala. Silent valley region through which Kunthipuzha river flows is considered a hotspot of biodiversity. 1970: the Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB) proposes a hydroelectric dam across the Kunthipuzha River that runs through Silent Valley, that will submerge 8.3 sq km of untouched moist evergreen forest. Many eminent environmentalists like Madhav Gadgil opposed the dam construction in this place because of following reasons: 1) Proposed dam would result in loss of forest cover and endemic species of Silent Valley region 2) Proposed dam on Kunthi River would have resulted in acute water shortage in downstream areas of Kerala. River Bharata also receive water from Kunthi river and was predicted to be completely dry if dam was built on Kunthi river. Farming activity would have adversely affected with this dam construction. 3) Proposed dam would not have provided benefit to the state of Kerala. Electricity generated through this dam was planned to be transferred to neighbouring states of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Later, dam proposal was rejected and Silent Valley region was converted into Silent Valley National Park in 1984.  Case Studies – Save Western Ghat Movement Save the Western Ghats Movement is considered to be landmark event in environment history of our country. Western Ghats cover parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. This area is well known for rich flora and fauna. Save the Western Ghats Movement of 1986 highlighted urgent need to reduce development process in Western Ghats which threatened ecosystem of this place. In this movement, civil society raised concerns related to impact of development on Western Ghats. Further this movement was effective in generating awareness about environment protection and tribal rights in forest. During 1987-1988, many local and regional people’s movement organized themselves to march the length of Western Ghats. This was initiated to protest against development activities like dam construction or power station in the areas of Western Ghats. The Northern March was flagged-off by noted environment campaigner and one of the founder leaders of Chipko Movement Shri Chandi Prasad Bhatt. The Southern March was flagged-off by noted Gandhian and historian Shri Dharmpal. The key objectives of the March. To generate awareness among the people about ecology and related issues like denudation of forests, afforestation, preservation of wildlife, natural resources etc. To learn more facts about the nature and extent of ecological destruction of the Western Ghats. To expose young research scholars to the field situations so that they could view the problems in a wider perspective. To bring together all voluntary organisations working in the region, to formulate some long –term common ecological programmes. To encourage academic institutions, involvement of schools in the area to take up afforestation and other ecologically relevant programmes. Further, Western Ghats Development Programme was initiated by Government of India in 1981 for eco-restoration and conservation of biodiversity in this place. As a result of this movement, proposed dam in Silent Valley region of Western Ghats was rejected in 1984.