Unit 3 Data Collection PDF

Unit 3 Data Collection -Ms. Riya Bhatt Lets read ► According to the report of All India Survey on Higher Education report 2021-22, The total enrolment in higher education has increased to nearly 4.33 crore in 2021-22 from 4.14 crore in 2020-21. There has been an increase o...

Unit 3 Data Collection -Ms. Riya Bhatt Lets read ► According to the report of All India Survey on Higher Education report 2021-22, The total enrolment in higher education has increased to nearly 4.33 crore in 2021-22 from 4.14 crore in 2020-21. There has been an increase of around 91lakh in the enrolment from 3.42 crore(26.5%) in 2014-15. ► From 2017-18 to 2022-23, employment in India surged from 46.8% to 56% , accompanied by a notable rise in labor force participation from 49.8% to 57.9%. Source article from Times of India. Data and its Types ► According to the Oxford Learning Dictionary (2021), “Data are facts or information, which are especially examined and used to find out things and make decisions.” ► Raw Data/ scores: Untreated, unconverted values obtained directly from measuring process used in a study. ► Two types of Data: 1) Primary data: Those data which have been collected from the primary sources on the first hand basis by the researchers. 2) Secondary data: Data collected from the secondary sources like census data, hospital records, books, journals, newspapers, some other historical records etc. Secondary data are collected from the second hand way from the secondary sources.  Questionnaire and Schedule ► Questionnaire: A questionnaire is used where factual information from the respondents is desired. It consists of a form containing a series of questions where the respondents themselves fill in the answers. Eg: Psychological Well Being Scale ► Schedule: It consists of a form containing a series of questions, which are asked and filled in by the investigator in a face to face situation. Eg: rating schedules, observation schedules, interview schedules, document schedules etc. ► Opinionnaire: An opinionnaire is an information form which attempts to measure the attitude or belief of an individual. It is also called attitude scale. Eg: Feedback forms ► When factual information is desired, a questionnaire is used but when opinions rather than facts are desired an opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. ► Interview guide: An interview guide consists of a list of basic points or topics to be covered by the interviewer during the interview. ► Inventory: An inventory is a list of questions or characteristics that are used to measure a variable. Eg: Beck’s Depression Inventory Wording of Questions in a Questionnaire 1) Simplicity in language: ► Avoid jargons and too many technical terms ► Avoid complex, long questions 2) Ambiguity: ► Avoid ambiguous questions ► Avoid double-barrelled questions eg: Do you enjoy travelling in bus or car? 3) Vague words: ► Avoid vague words like often, generally, somewhat etc 4) Embarrassing questions: ► One method to ask embarrassing questions is not to ask such questions directly from the respondents but to ask them to express their views in others. 5) Double negatives: ► Creates confusion thus should be avoided. Eg: Do you not agree that parents should not use very harass punishments with the children? Wording of Questions in a Questionnaire 6) Leading questions: A leading question is one, which by virtue of its content leads to a specific answer. Eg: Isn’t it true that you were at home on Saturday evening? 7) Presuming questions: The question should not be such that necessarily implies that the respondent possess the knowledge regarding the theme of the question of that he has participated in those activities, which are being asked. 8) Hypothetical questions: “Would you like to..?”, “What do you do if?” such questions are avoided since they do not provide with any concrete thing. Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire ► It should focus on specific topic ► Significance, aim and objectives should be clearly stated ► Preferably it should be short ► Directions and wording should be simple and clear ► Each question should deal with a single idea ► Questions should be objective and should not provide hints or suggestions ► Embarrassing questions, presuming questions and hypothetical questions should be avoided. ► Proper order of the questions. From General to specific ideas, from favourable attitude to unfavourable attitude. Funnel sequence: It is recommended to start questions with some broad questions relating to the topics and then gradually narrowing it down to a specific questions relating to the topic. Functions of a questionnaire ► Description ► Measurement  Types of Questionnaires based upon types of response required 1) Fixed response questionnaire: It consists of statements of questions with a fixed number of options or choices. ► Also known as closed form questionnaire, pre-coded type of questionnaire ► Eg: Multiple choice questions, True/ False ► Basic assumptions while using fixed response questionnaire: a) Target sample has adequate knowledge regarding the subject matter b) Researcher has enough knowledge about the sample. Types of Questionnaires based upon types of response required 2) Open end questionnaire: It consists of questions which require short or lengthy answers by the respondents. ► What are the various effective ways of learning a material? Types of Questionnaires based on method of administration 1) Mail questionnaire: Questionnaire which is mailed to a subject with a request to answer the questions 2) Face to face administered questionnaire: Subjects are given questionnaire with instructions to complete them in the presence of the investigator. Advantages and Disadvantages of Fixed response questionnaire ► Easily scored and coded ► Requires no writing from the respondents ► Less time consuming Disadvantages: ► It is not possible to provide the respondent with all possibles choices ► Chances of response set or bias. Advantages and Disadvantages of Open-ended questionnaire ► More beneficial when the investigator has lesser information regarding the subject ► Provides more insightful replies. Disadvantages: ► Educational bias ► More time consuming ► Difficult to score objectively  Advantages and Disadvantages Mail questionnaire ► Less costly ► Accessible to diverse and distant population ► Avoids personal bias and influence of the interviewers ► Avoids the problem of direct contact with the respondent Disadvantages: ► Nonresponse from the respondent ► Ineffective when the questionnaire needs detail explanation ► Ineffective when the respondent fails to understand difficult, complex and technical ► No way to check validity of the answers ► No additional or supplement background data available. Advantages and Disadvantages of Face to Face administered questionnaire ► Less time consuming ► Increases the validity of the collected information ► Researcher is present to resolve queries ► Provides detail analysis for any problem question Disadvantages: ► Makes the respondent too conscious ► More costly and time consuming ► Affects the external validity of the questionnaire COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES ► This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. ► These enumerators along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma. ► In certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules. ► Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of difficult terms. COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH SCHEDULES ► This method requires the selection of enumerators for filling up schedules or assisting respondents to fill up schedules and as such enumerators should be very carefully selected. ► The enumerators should be trained to perform their job well and the nature and scope of the investigation should be explained to them thoroughly so that they may well understand the implications of different questions put in the schedule. ► Enumerators should be intelligent and must possess the capacity of cross examination in order to find out the truth. Above all, they should be honest, sincere, hardworking and should have patience and perseverance. ► This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by governmental agencies or by some big organisations. Population census all over the world is conducted through this method. Difference between questionnaires and schedules ► The questionnaire is generally sent through mail to informants to be answered as specified in a covering letter, but otherwise without further assistance from the sender. The schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator, who can interpret questions when necessary. ► To collect data through questionnaire is relatively cheap and economical since we have to spend money only in preparing the questionnaire and in mailing the same to respondents. Here no field staff required. To collect data through schedules is relatively more expensive since considerable amount of money has to be spent in appointing enumerators and in importing training to them. Money is also spent in preparing schedules. ► Non-response is usually high in case of questionnaire as many people do not respond and many return the questionnaire without answering all questions. Bias due to non-response often remains indeterminate. As against this, non-response is generally very low in case of schedules because these are filled by enumerators who are able to get answers to all questions. But there remains the danger of interviewer bias and cheating. ► In case of questionnaire, it is not always clear as to who replies, but in case of schedule the identity of respondent is known. Difference between questionnaires and schedules ► The questionnaire method is likely to be very slow since many respondents do not return the questionnaire in time despite several reminders, but in case of schedules the information is collected well in time as they are filled in by enumerators. ► Personal contact is generally not possible in case of the questionnaire method as questionnaires are sent to respondents by post who also in turn return the same by post. But in case of schedules direct personal contact is established with respondents. ► Questionnaire method can be used only when respondents are literate and cooperative, but in case of schedules the information can be gathered even when the respondents happen to be illiterate. ► Wider and more representative distribution of sample is possible under the questionnaire method, but in respect of schedules there usually remains the difficulty in sending enumerators over a relatively wider area. ► Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information is relatively more under the questionnaire method, particularly when people are unable to understand questions properly. But in case of schedules, the information collected is generally complete and accurate as enumerators can remove the difficulties, if any, faced by respondents in correctly understanding the questions. ► As a result, the information collected through schedules is relatively more accurate than that obtained through questionnaires. Difference between questionnaires and schedules ► The success of questionnaire method lies more on the quality of the questionnaire itself, but in the case of schedules much depends upon the honesty and competence of enumerators. ► In order to attract the attention of respondents, the physical appearance of questionnaire must be quite attractive, but this may not be so in case of schedules as they are to be filled in by enumerators and not by respondents. ► Along with schedules, observation method can also be used but such a thing is not possible while collecting data through questionnaires. Activity 1 ► Frame 10 questions on the following topic: “ Student Life Satisfaction Scale” Activity 2 ► You will have to choose a topic ► On that topic you have to search a standardized tool? ► You will have to make a google form from that tool ► Administer it on all your classmates ► Minimum requirement of 100 data ► That data will be used in JASP later Interview ► Interview is a face to face situation between the interviewer and the respondent, which intends to elicit some desired information from the latter. ► Interview and questionnaires both have same aim- minimum bias and maximum efficiency. ► Success of an interview depends on the following factors: 1) Interaction between the interviewer and the respondent 2) Accessibility 3) Cognition 4) Motivation  Types of interviews ► 1) Formal interviews ► A formal interview is one in which already prepared questions are asked in a set order by the interviewer and answers are recorded in a standardized form. ► Also known as structured or patterned interview. ► As the interview situation is highly structured, less trained interviewers can also conduct this interviews. Limitations of formal interviews: ► Expensive and time consuming ► Validity of formal interviews is less as compared to the methods of biodata analysis and standardized psychological tests.  Types of interviews ► 2) Informal interview: ► Is one where there is no pre-determined set of questions nor is there any preset order of the questions and it is left to the interviewer to ask some questions in a way he likes regarding the key points. ► Example: Viva exams ► Also known as unstructured interview ► An informal interview is more commonly used than the formal interview and is a flexible method of collecting data. ► Informal interviews helps in gaining deeper knowledge on a topic Limitations ► Greater scope for personal influence and bias ► Less reliable in comparison to the formal interview ► Scope for informal interview is limited since it requires more tactful and intelligent researcher. ► Data obtained through informal interview is difficult to quantify and analyse. Major functions of the interviews 1) Description 2) Exploration Factors affecting the uses of Interviews ► Characteristics of interviewers 1) Subjective characteristics 2) Objective characteristics ► Characteristics of interviewees 1) Capacity of the interviewee to verbalize 2) Willingness of the interviewees ► Nature of the problem under study Advantages of Interviews ► Provides greater flexibility in the process of questioning ► Facilitates the investigator in getting desired information readily and quickly ► Increases the validity of the conclusion arrived ► A desired level of control over the situation can be exercised ► Validity of the verbal information can be checked through non verbal cues Disadvantages of the interview ► Interviewers variability ► Inter-interviewer variability ► Validity and dependability of verbal responses ► Time ► Variations inherent to the interviewing context ► Recording information Important sources of errors in interviews ► Attitude of the interviewer ► Incomprehensibility of the questions asked ► Lack of warmth in the situation of the interview ► Lack of motivation in the respondents ► Duration of the interview Selection and training of Interviews ► Personal characteristics essential for the interviewers 1) Honesty 2) Accuracy 3) Adaptability 4) Interest 5) Temperament Observation Method Observation technique is a technique of data collection, which refers to watching and listening to the behaviour of other person over time without manipulating and controlling it and record its findings in a way that allows some degree of analytical interpretation and discussion. Useful when the aim is to: ► To see behaviour in natural situation ► To study situation-based features of conduct Steps in observation method includes: 1) Selecting 2) Recording 3) Encoding Observation Method Features: ► Occurs in natural settings in some cases it can also occur in laboratory setting. ► It captures those significant events or occurrences that affect the relations among persons being studied. ► Identifies important regularities and recurrences in social life Purpose of Observation: To capture and study human behaviour as it actually happens. To provide a graphic description of a real life. Exploration Types of Observations 1) Systematic Observation: Is done according to the explicit procedures as well as in accordance with the logic of scientific inference. 2) Unsystematic Observation: Is a type of causal observation made by the investigator without specifying any explicit and objective inference. Eg: Observing people’s behaviour at railway station, malls etc.  Types of Observation 1) Participant Observation: - Disguised and Undisguised participant observation - Strengths: - Provides more meaningful and rich data - Since observation is done in natural setting more realistic conclusions can be drawn. - Limitations: - Lacks in precision - Time-consuming - Human involvement may affect the validity of the data Types of Observation 2) Nonparticipant Observation: More structured and preplanned Strengths: - More reliable and representative of the population - Able to focus more on a particular aspect of social behaviour Limitations: - The behaviour of the person may not remain natural when they know that they are being observed. - Fails to capture natural context of social settings. RATING SCALES ► Two general classes of behaviour observation: 1) Observation of actual behaviour 2) Observation of remembered behaviour ► Rating scale is a technique to assess both actual behaviour and remembered behaviour. ► The purpose of rating scale is to know what kind of impressions the objects or persons have made upon the raters. ► A rating scale usually has 2,3,5,7,9 or 11 items on a line with descriptive categories at both the ends followed sometimes with a descriptive category in the middle of the continuum. ► Two components: Stimulus variable and response options. ► Ratings may be either retrospective or concurrent. RATING SCALES ► Precautions to be taken while constructing the rating scales: 1) Each trait to be rated should be clearly defined and explained with specific instances 2) Various intervals or points on the scale should be clearly defined. Preferably intervals on the rating scales should be kept below 7. 3) As far as possible, rating scales should be concerned exclusively with observable traits. Types of Rating Scales 1) Numerical Rating Scale Numerical anchors Meaning 1 Extremely disagree 2 Strongly disagree 3 Moderately disagree 4 Mildly disagree 5 Indifferent 6 Mildly agree 7 Moderately agree 8 Strongly agree 9 Extremely agree  Types of Rating Scales 2) Graphic rating scales ► On the graphic scale, the scales are presented graphically in which descriptive cues corresponding to the different scale steps are given. ► Items or statements here have no blank box and the rater simply puts either a tick mark or a cross mark on any of the descriptive cues to indicate his views. ► Advantages: i) No numerical anchors ii) Simple, easily administered and quickly completed by the raters ► Disadvantages: i) It takes more time and labour in scoring Types of Rating Scales 3) Percentage rating ► Percentage rating is done whenever the investigator wants a quick rating with maximum uniformity from rater to rater. ► The technique requires the rater to place the ratees among different specified percentage groups or into different percentiles or quartiles. ► The major limitation of this method is that the rater may be quite generous and therefore, the rating may be influenced by the individual differences in generosity among the raters. Types of Rating Scales 4) Standard Scale ► A standard scale is one in which the rater is presented with some standards with pre-established scale values. ► Types of standard scales: man to man scale, Portrait matching i) Man to man scale ► The rater is asked to give the names of a person who is well known to him and who is very high on the trait being rated. ► Advantages: a) Avoids confusion arising out of abstract numerical anchors b) Ratings can be comparable both in absolute and relative terms. c) Since scale values of all the key-men are pre-established and fixed, raters can’t shift over day to day’s ratings. Types of Rating Scales 4) Standard Scale ii) Portrait matching; ► The portrait matching techniques deviates from the usual rating scale method in that it requires the rater to find persons to match the description which is in contrast to the usual practice for asking the rater to find descriptions to match the persons. ► Advantages: a) Eliminates the element of subjectivity Types of Rating Scales 5) Scale of Cumulated Points ► Here the person’s total score is the sum of individual ratings or points assigned to all items of the scale. ► Rating scales based upon summated points can be divided into two types: i) Checklist method: Where the rater is supplied with a large number of specific behavioural statements and he is asked to check these statements which describes the person in question. ► The person’s total score on the checklist is equal to the sum of the scores for the items checked for him. ► The purpose of the behaviour checklist is to know whether certain specified traits are present or absent in the individual being rated. ► Eg: Vineland Social Maturity Scale ► Variations of checklist method- True/ False, Multiple choice questions Types of Rating Scales 5) Scales of Cumulated points: ii) Guess- who technique also known as Casting Characters ► This technique to be used primarily with the children ► Procedure: a) Verbal descriptions in the form of sentences are given to the children b) The child raters are asked to name the other children who fit or match certain verbal descriptions , mentioning as many times as they think appropriate. c) Each favourable description is given a point and all such points are summed to get a total score. ► This technique is similar to portrait matching technique Types of Rating Scales 6) Forced-choice rating scales: ► In this method, the rater is given a set of attributes in terms of verbal statements for a single item and he decides which one or ones represent the individual being rated most appropriately and accurately. ► Advantages: i) Minimizes generosity error ii) The tendency to get influenced is controlled. iii) The raters biased is reduced. ► Disadvantages: i) Limited freedom in ratings ii) Sometimes the raters believe that non of the statements actually describes the person appropriately even though they have to give judgements. Problems in Obtaining Effective Rating ► Factors affecting rater’s willingness ► Factors affecting rater’s ability 1) Opportunity to observe the individuals being rated 2) Subjectivity in the traits being rated 3) Vagueness in the meaning of the trait rated 4) Nonuniform standard of reference 5) Raters personal characteristics Methods of Improving Effectiveness of Rating Scales ► Refinement in stimulus variables of the rating scales ► Refinement in response variables of the rating scales ► Improvement in rating procedures  Case Study Method ► The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group, or, even the entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. ► The case study places more emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. ► The case study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. ► Thus, a case study is essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration. ► In this method, the researcher can take a single social unit or more such units for his study purpose. ► Here the selected unit is studied intensively, i.e., it is studied in minute detail. ► Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct inferences.  Case Study Method ► In the context of this method we make a complete study of the social unit covering all facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that are operative within a social unit as an integrated totality. ► Using this method, the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere quantitative information is not collected. ► Every possible effort is made to collect information concerning all aspects of life. ► As such, the case study method deepens our perception and gives us a clear insight into life. For instance, in the case study method, we not only study how many crimes a man has committed, but we peep into the factors that forced him to commit crimes when we are making a case study of a man who is a criminal. The objective of the study may be to suggest ways to reform the criminal. ► The case study method results in fruitful hypotheses, along with the data which may be helpful in testing them, and, thus, this method enables generalized knowledge to get richer and richer. In its absence, generalized social science may get handicapped. Focus Group Discussions ► Focus groups combine elements of both interviewing and participant observation. ► The hallmark of focus groups is the explicit use of group interaction to generate data and insights that would be unlikely to emerge without the interaction found in a group. ► The technique inherently allows observation of group dynamics, discussion, and firsthand insights into the respondents’ behaviours, attitudes, language, etc. ► Focus groups are a gathering of 8 to 12 people who share some characteristics relevant to the evaluation. ► Focus groups, conducted by experts, generally take place in a focus group facility that includes recording apparatus (audio and/or visual) and an attached room with a one-way mirror for observation. There is an official recorder who may or may not be in the room. Participants are paid for attendance and provided with refreshments. When to use focus groups ► When conducting evaluations, focus groups are useful in answering the same type of questions as in-depth interviews. Specific applications of the focus group method in evaluations include identifying and defining problems in project implementation identifying project strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations assisting with interpretation of quantitative findings obtaining perceptions of project outcomes and impacts generating new ideas. Developing a Focus Group ► An important aspect of conducting focus groups is the topic guide. The topic guide, a list of topics or question areas, serves as a summary statement of the issues and objectives to be covered by the focus group. ► The topic guide also serves as a road map and as a memory aid for the focus group leader, called a moderator. ► The topic guide also provides the initial outline for the report of findings. ► Focus group participants are typically asked to reflect on the questions asked by the moderator. ► Participants are permitted to hear each other’s responses and to make additional comments beyond their own original responses as they hear what other people have to say. It is not necessary for the group to reach any kind of consensus, nor is it necessary for people to disagree. The moderator must keep the discussion flowing and make sure that one or two persons do not dominate the discussion. ► As a rule, the focus group session should not last longer than 1 ½ hours to 2 hours. When very specific information is required, the session may be as short as 40 minutes. The objective is to get high quality data in a social context where people can consider their own views in the context of the views of others, and, where new ideas and perspectives can be introduced. Content Analysis ► Content analysis consists of analyzing the contents of documents, such as books, magazines, newspapers, and the contents of all other verbal materials, either. spoken or printed. ► Content analysis prior to 1940’s was mostly quantitative documentary materials concerning certain characteristics that can be identified and counted. But since the 1950’s, content analysis is mostly qualitative analysis, concerning the general importance of the existing documents. ► The analysis of content is a central activity whenever one is concerned with the nature of the verbal materials. A review of research in any area, for instance, involves of the contents of research articles that have been published. ► The analysis may be at a simple level, or, it may be a subtle one. It is at a simple level when we pursue it on the basis of certain characteristics of the document, or, verbal materials that can be identified and counted (such as on the basis of major scientific concepts in a book). It is at a subtle level when researcher uncovers the attitude, say of the press towards education by feature writers Other Qualitative Data Collection Methods 1) Document studies 2) Public records 3) Personal documents 4) Key informants 5) Performance assessment