Cognitive Processes - Memory

 Define memory. Explain the basic memory process. Explain the activities involved in learning. Describe the types of memory. Enumerate factors influencing memory. Define forgetting. Objectives...

 Define memory. Explain the basic memory process. Explain the activities involved in learning. Describe the types of memory. Enumerate factors influencing memory. Define forgetting. Objectives Discuss the causes of forgetting. Explain the types of forgetting. Explain the methods to improve memory. Explain the Brain structures involved in memory processing. List the importance of memory for health care professionals  Introduction Memory is one of most important cognitive processes. Memory involves remembering and forgetting. They play an important role in the life of the individual. “ Memory consists in remembering what has previously been learnt.” - Woodworth & Marquis Definition  Following are the fundamental characteristics of the memory process: Memory involves input – registering or encoding information, where a memory Nature of trace is formed from translating the Memory sensory data. Storage – it is either temporary or permanent. Output – it involves retrieval – memory  Stages Of Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval Encoding- It’s the first stage which refers to a process by which information is recorded and registered for the first time so that it becomes usable by our memory system. Storage- This is the second stage of memory. It refers to the process through which information is retained and held over a period of time. Retrieval - This is the second stage of memory. It refers to bringing the stored information to her/his awareness so that it can be used for performing various cognitive tasks such as problem solving or decision-making. Types of Memory Sensory Memory The incoming information first enters the sensory memory. Sensory memory has a large capacity. However, it is of very short duration, i.e. less than a second. It is a memory system that registers information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy. For example, we look up a telephone number from the directory and remember it, but after making the call, we usually forget it.  Iconic memory reflects information from the visual system. Echoic memory stores auditory information coming from the ears. Haptic memory is the branch of sensory memory used by the sense of touch.  Short-term Memory Short-term memory (STM) holds a relatively small amount of information, about seven items, for a short period of (20–30 seconds) time though not nearly as short-lived as the immediate memory. The materials that are constantly handled, manipulated and transformed as people perform various cognitive tasks which is called as working memory type of short-term memory that (stores information temporarily during the completion of cognitive tasks) such as comprehension, problem solving, reasoning, and learning  Long-term Memory It is a permnent storehouse of all information. Long-term memory (LTM) has the unlimited capacity to store information for days, months, years and even a lifetime. LTM codes information according to meaning, pattern and other characteristics. With the help of LTM we can store, retain and remember most of the things in our life, at record notice and thus make things quite easy Cont..  Activities involved in memory The different activities involved in memory are - Learning, Retention Recall, Recognizing, Reconstruction. Learning: This is the first stage of memory. Learning may be by any of the methods like imitation, verbal, motor, conceptual, trial and error, insight, etc.  Cont… Retention The learnt material will be retained in the brain in the form of neural traces called ‘neurograms’. These engrains or memory traces are preserved in our brain with the help of our nervous system. This process is known as retention. Recalling: Recalling is the process of reproducing the past experiences that are not present. For example, recalling answers in the examination hall. CONT… Recognizing: It is to recognize a person seen earlier, or the original items seen earlier, from among the items of the same class or category when they are mixed-up. Relearning: Relearning is also known as saving method. The difference between the amount of time or trials required for original learning and the one required for relearning indicates the amount of retention. Reconstruction: Reconstruction is otherwise called rearrangement. Here the material to learn will be presented in a particular order and then the items will be jumbled up or shuffled thoroughly and presented to the individual to rearrange them in the original order in which it was presented.  Factors influencing memory Ability to retain: depends on good memory traces left in the brain by past experiences. Good health: A person with good health can retain the learnt material better than a person with poor health. Age of the learner: Youngsters can remember better than the aged. Maturity: very young children cannot retain and remember complex material. Will to remember: it helps for better retention. Cont.. Intelligence: Interest: If a person Over learning: Intelligent person will has more interest, he Experiments have have better memory will learn and retain proved that over than dull person. better. learning will lead to better memory. Speed of learning: quicker learning Meaningfulness of Sleep or rest: leads to better retention. the material: meaningful material remain in our memory for longer period than for nonsense material.  Methods of Memorizing Making Use of the Principle of Grouping and Rhythm Utilizing as many Senses as Possible- Association – The attempts should be Grouping and rhythm- It Things are better learnt and made to connect it with one’s previous also facilitate learning and remembered, when they are presented learning on the one hand and with so help in remembering. For through more than one sense like audio- many related things on the other. For example, a telephone visual aid material. example, ‘CAUTION’ for cancer number 567 345 234 can symptoms. be easily memorized. Cont.. Acronym – It is the Pulling at all Together -By method of creating Funnel combination of organizing and adding Approach- It meaning to the material prior letters so as to recall means learning certain to learning facilitate both general concepts storage and retrieval enumerations. before moving on to specific details. For example CPR: Cardiopulmonary resuscitation, ED/ER: Emergency department/emergen cy room Cont… Acrostic -An invented sentence, where the first letter of each word is a clue to an idea you need to remember. For example “My Very Educated Mother Just Sent Us Nine Pizzas” to help you remember the nine planets and their order in our solar system Mnemonics- It is another word for memory tool. Mnemonic are techniques for remembering information, i.e. otherwise quite difficult to recall. For example “A-B-C- D…” song, which helps us learn the English alphabet. Chunking: This is a technique generally used, when remembering numbers. For example In remembering the number string 64831996, you could try to remember each number individually or you could try thinking about the string as 64 83 19 96 (creating ‘chunks’ of numbers).  Forgetting Is the apparent loss of information that is encoded and stored in the long term memory. Definition: Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability to recall or reorganize something learned earlier. - Munn CAUSES OF FORGETTING Faulty memory process- sometimes we listen to many details but we encode only portion of the information and not the actual details or words. Here our memory does not match with what actually happened. Interference- an important cause of forgetting in every day life is interference of learnt material Cont…… Retrieval problems- retrieval is necessary for recall. Without appropriate retrieval cues there will be problem to sought out stored items and this leads to forgetting Motivated forgetting- this is a kind of forgetting in which the individual intentionally forgets. Amnesia- it is a kind of memory disorder which occurs from a loss of what has already been stored  1. Natural forgetting – occurs with the lapse of time without any intension of the individual to forget. Types of forgetting 2. Abnormal forgetting – one deliberately tries to forget. 3. General forgetting – the individual suffers from total loss of ones recall of some previous learning.  Cont.. 4.Specific forgetting – forgets one or the other specific part of previous learning. 5.Physical forgetting – because of age, disease, accident, alcoholism etc. 6.Psychological forgetting – person looses memory because of stress, anxiety, lack of interest etc.  Theories of Forgetting 1. Decay Theory: "don't use it you lose it." Unused material fades with time. 2. Interference: Negative inhibiting effects of one learning experience on another.one piece of information impairs the recollection of another Retroactive interference: new learning/information interferes with old Proactive interference: old learning/information interferes with new 3. Motivated forgetting - Repression - information is psychologically painful 4. Retrieval Cue Failure - Can't recall how you stored or filed the information 5. State Dependent Memory - Not in the same psychological or physical state when you first learned the material 6. Organic/biological problems caused by depression, malnutrition, Alzheimer  1.Develop the will to remember. 2. Keep concentration METHODS OF IMPROVING 3. Picturize the learning material/ situation MEMORY 4. Use spaced method 5. Avoid emotional disturbances 6. Do not recall when there is some inhibition or resistance.  7. Overlearning is beneficial 8. Role of recitation 9. Take rest or sleep after study 10. Get feedback by testing the self Cont… 11. Use of pneumonic. First letter method e.g. VIBGYOR Narrative technique e.g. making a story Hierarchy e.g. general to specific.  Brain structures and memory Three brain areas do play significant roles in the processing and storage of different types of memories: cerebellum, hippocampus, and amygdala.  The cerebellum’s job is to process procedural memories; The hippocampus is where new memories are encoded; The amygdala helps determine what memories to store, The amygdala is especially involved with memories involving emotion. The basal ganglia, deep brain structures involved in motor movement, facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills Flashbulb memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.  Importance of Memory Memory is absolute necessity for health care professionals. Quality of work improves through better memory. Good memory will help to remember many details of treatments and other information pertaining to patients. Forgetfulness will affect negatively and lead to many problems.  Alterations in Memory Alterations in memory can range from mild to severe, yet are all a result of damage to neuroanatomical structures Agnosia is the inability to recognize certain objects, persons or sounds. Examples of specific types of agnosia include: visual agnosia, auditory agnosia, prosopagnosia, somatosensory agnosia, apraxia, associative agnosia, etc Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive, degenerative disease as a result, the death of brain cells occur leading to severe cognitive impairment Amnesia is an abnormal mental state, in which memory and learning are affected out of all proportion to other cognitive functions Hyperthymestic syndrome Patients with this disorder are able to recall events from everyday of their lives. This disorder is very rare with only a few confirmed cases  1.Bernstein, D.A. Penner, L.A. Stewart, A. & Roy, E.J. (2006). Psychology, 7th edition.. Houghton – Mifflin: Boston. References 1. Reddy, A N V. Essentials of Psychology for nurses.1st edition, Jaypee: New delhi. 2. Sreevani. R. (2018). Psychology for Nurses. 3rd edition. Jaypee: New Delhi.