Unit 1 Elements of Industry 4.0 - RV College of Engineering PDF

Elements of Industry 4.0 ME114BTS / ME124BTS UNIT-1 by Keshavamurthy YC Dr Chandrakumar R  Syllabus UNIT-I Industry 4.0 – Introduction: The Various Industrial Revolutions,...

Elements of Industry 4.0 ME114BTS / ME124BTS UNIT-1 by Keshavamurthy YC Dr Chandrakumar R  Syllabus UNIT-I Industry 4.0 – Introduction: The Various Industrial Revolutions, Need – Reason for Adopting Industry 4.0, Definition, Goals and Design Principles – Interoperability, Virtualization, Decentralization, Real-time Capability, Road to Industry 4.0 – Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT). 21-Mar-24 KYC 2  Industrial Revolution The first industrial revolution, truly revolutionary in its scope, unfolded between approximately 1760 and 1840, marking a seismic shift in human history. It was characterized by the widespread adoption of steam machines, harnessing the power of water and steam, and the proliferation of various other mechanical innovations. This period sparked an industrial transformation that reshaped society on a fundamental level, introducing innovations such as trains, mechanized manufacturing processes, and the widespread use of steam-powered machinery. However, this rapid industrialization also brought about significant challenges, including pollution and the generation of smog due to the extensive use of coal and other fossil fuels. Nonetheless, the first industrial revolution laid the groundwork for the modern industrial age, setting the stage for further technological advancements and economic growth. KYC 3  Industrial Revolution The second industrial revolution, a pivotal period spanning the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ushered in a profound transformation in manufacturing. It is renowned for its pivotal role in leveraging electricity and pioneering manufacturing innovations like the assembly line. These advancements catalyzed the emergence of mass production, fundamentally reshaping the economic landscape and fueling unprecedented growth. With electricity powering machinery and the assembly line streamlining production processes, industries could now produce goods on a scale never before imagined, leading to significant advancements in efficiency and productivity. The integration of these technologies also laid the groundwork for the early stages of automation, marking a critical step towards modern industrial practices. 21-Mar-24 KYC 4  Industrial Revolution The third industrial revolution, originating in the 1960s, was characterized by the proliferation of computers, computer networks (WAN, LAN, MAN, etc.), and the increasing use of robotics in manufacturing. It heralded connectivity and marked the advent of the Internet, fundamentally altering how information is managed and disseminated. This era witnessed the evolution of brick-and-mortar establishments into e-versions with heightened levels of automation. Often referred to as the computer or digital revolution, it was driven by milestones such as the development of semiconductors, the rise of mainframe computing in the 1960s, the emergence of personal computing in the 1970s and '80s, and the widespread adoption of the internet in the 1990s. 21-Mar-24 KYC 5  Industrial Revolution In the fourth industrial revolution, transition beyond mere reliance on the Internet and the client-server model to embrace ubiquitous mobility. Integrate digital and physical environments, known in manufacturing as Cyber-Physical Systems, and witness the convergence of IT and OT. Alongside the previously mentioned technologies such as the Internet of Things, Big Data, and cloud computing, harness additional accelerators like advanced robotics and AI/cognitive capabilities. These elements collectively enable Industry 4.0, fostering automation and optimization in entirely novel ways. This transformation presents abundant opportunities for innovation, facilitating the full automation necessary to elevate the industry to the next level. 21-Mar-24 KYC 6  Industrial Revolution 21-Mar-24 KYC 7  Industry 4.0 Industry 4.0 represents the latest wave of technological advancement in manufacturing, characterized by the seamless integration of automation and data exchange. This paradigm shift heralds the cyber-physical transformation of manufacturing processes, where traditional industrial systems are augmented with digital intelligence. Central to Industry 4.0 are cyber-physical systems, which bridge the physical and virtual worlds, enabling real-time monitoring and control of manufacturing operations. Moreover, the integration of the Internet of Things (IoT), cloud computing, and cognitive computing further enhances the capabilities of Industry 4.0 systems, enabling predictive maintenance, optimized production scheduling, and adaptive manufacturing processes. Widely recognized as the fourth industrial revolution, Industry 4.0 represents a transformative force that promises to revolutionize the manufacturing landscape and drive unparalleled levels of efficiency, productivity, and innovation. 21-Mar-24 KYC 8  Industry 4.0 21-Mar-24 KYC 9  The fourth industrial revolution Industry 4.0 Products and manufacturing processes are interconnected to facilitate communication, enabling Industry 4.0 technologies to generate value and optimize operations in real-time. Cyber-physical systems serve as the foundation for capabilities in modern smart factories, encompassing features like remote tracking and monitoring. Industry 4.0, often used interchangeably with the Fourth Industrial Revolution on a global scale, signifies a new phase in organizing and managing the value chain. Its defining characteristics include heightened levels of automation compared to its predecessor, bridging the gap between the digital and physical realms through cyber-physical systems introduced by IIoT. Moreover, Industry 4.0 represents a notable transition away from centralized industrial control towards an environment where the latest intelligent products dictate the production process. It incorporates closed-loop control systems and sophisticated data models to enhance efficiency and responsiveness. Furthermore, Industry 4.0 fosters product customization and personalization, reflecting a shift towards meeting individualized consumer needs and preferences in manufacturing processes. 21-Mar-24 KYC 10  Need for Industry 4.0 In a competitive industry filled with tech-savvy rivals, staying ahead requires strategic resource allocation. Recruiting has become challenging, necessitating innovative approaches to attract and retain talent. Enhanced visibility throughout the supply chain is essential for informed decision- making and improved efficiency. Proactive identification and resolution of minor issues are crucial to prevent them from escalating into major disruptions. Prioritizing profitability and efficiency drives the organization's initiatives towards sustainable growth. Ensuring universal access to updated business processes fosters a culture of transparency and collaboration. 21-Mar-24 KYC 11  Need for Industry 4.0 Timely and comprehensive analytics empower decision-makers with actionable insights. Digitization efforts are imperative for relevance in today's data-driven landscape. Elevating customer satisfaction and experience is a key objective, requiring continual refinement of products and services. Scaling up product quality while maintaining standards is paramount for long-term success. Integration of an ERP system spanning inventory, planning, finance, supply chain, manufacturing, and customer relations streamlines operations. Customized views of operations tailored to specific needs provide clarity and facilitate effective management. Real-time insights enable agile decision-making, enhancing responsiveness to market dynamics. 21-Mar-24 KYC 12  Benefits of Industry 4.0 21-Mar-24 KYC 13  Reasons to Adopt Industry 4.0 21-Mar-24 KYC 14  Reasons to Adopt Industry 4.0 Enhanced Productivity: Industry 4.0 empowers organizations to achieve more with fewer resources, effectively allocating them to boost production, minimize waste, enhance customer satisfaction, and streamline operations, leading to significant time and cost savings. Additionally, it facilitates faster decision-making processes, ensuring greater efficiency. Agile Operations: Industry 4.0 fosters agility within processes, enabling organizations to thrive in dynamic environments by bolstering resilience. Through the integration of flexible and scalable systems, it enables effective management of change and uncertainties, thus fortifying the organization against disruptions. 21-Mar-24 KYC 15  Reasons to Adopt Industry 4.0 Cost Optimization: Embracing automated processes under Industry 4.0 leads to heightened efficiency, resulting in reduced operating costs and minimized waste in manufacturing operations by optimizing resource utilization. Moreover, increased automation diminishes labor costs while simultaneously enhancing output and automatically optimizing resource allocation to minimize wastage. Revenue Maximization: Industry 4.0 drives higher returns on investment by facilitating the production of high-quality products and elevating customer satisfaction, thereby solidifying the organization's position in the market. Implementation of automation, advanced data management techniques, seamless systems integration, and artificial intelligence fosters profitability and propels business growth. 21-Mar-24 KYC 16  Reasons to Adopt Industry 4.0 Enhanced Work Environment: Integration of cutting-edge technologies into business operations ensures the establishment of a superior and intelligent workplace. By combining automated solutions with human expertise, organizations can create more enriching roles, fostering the overall development of the organization. Streamlined Communication: Leveraging real-time data analysis and insightful observations enhances communication channels within the organization. Through the meticulous collection, storage, analysis, and dissemination of detailed data across departments, transparent communication is ensured. This seamless flow of information, from production planning to execution, fosters a cohesive and interconnected work environment. 21-Mar-24 KYC 17  Reasons to Adopt Industry 4.0 Prioritized Customer Satisfaction: Placing paramount importance on customer satisfaction, businesses strive to meet and exceed customer expectations and demands. Offering high-quality products at competitive prices and ensuring their widespread availability is essential. Additionally, promptly addressing customer concerns and providing exceptional customer service are pivotal in cultivating customer loyalty and affinity towards the brand. 21-Mar-24 KYC 18  Design Principles of Industry 4.0 Six key design principles in Industry 4.0 21-Mar-24 KYC 19  Design Principles of Industry 4.0 There are six main principles of Industry 4.0. These are interoperability and interconnection, information transparency, e.g. virtualisation, decentralisation and autonomous decisions, real-time capability, technical assistance, and service orientation and finally, modularity. Interoperability: It enables seamless connection and communication between machines, devices, sensors, and people via IoT. This facilitates advanced data collection, providing comprehensive insights into operations. Integrating this data with smart factory solutions allows real-time analysis, empowering informed decision-making with access to vast amounts of accurate data at lightning speed. 21-Mar-24 KYC 20  Design Principles of Industry 4.0 Information Transparency and Virtualization: Involves creating virtual copies of physical elements through digital models fueled by sensor data and interoperable systems. Interoperability is essential for this transparency and virtualization as it contextualizes information by combining data from various sources. Context-aware information ensures that data is transformed into meaningful information, adapting to different contexts and scopes, ultimately creating virtual representations of physical entities. It is a key principle in Industry 4.0, ensuring easy observation of actions and stored information. It facilitates clear and accessible data, enabling swift knowledge extraction. Embracing this principle allows real-time monitoring and instant adjustments for enhanced efficiency on the shop floor. Increased data collection provides greater visibility into operations, empowering effective and enduring improvements by ensuring information accessibility to individuals in need. 21-Mar-24 KYC 21  Design Principles of Industry 4.0 Decentralization and autonomous decisions: Decentralization and autonomy are one of the core goals of Industry 4.0, enabling machines and cyber-physical systems to make autonomous decisions. This enhances agility, flexibility, and responsiveness to uncertainties and demands for personalization in the smart factory ecosystem. In Logistics 4.0, decentralization is ubiquitous, seen in IoT, edge computing, and autonomous production systems. While automation is crucial, human planning and decisions remain essential, often involving a mix of semi-autonomous capabilities. Achieving a balance between automated and human decision-making is ongoing, with the mantra of only escalating decisions to higher levels in case of issues proving challenging in practice. 21-Mar-24 KYC 22  Design Principles of Industry 4.0 Realtime Capabilities: Real-time capability is essential for achieving increased efficiency and meeting the demands of an evolving real-time economy in Industry 4.0. It involves leveraging advanced analytics, IoT, and smart manufacturing systems to turn data into actionable intelligence and decisions instantly. This capability is vital for ensuring flexibility, predictive maintenance, and rapid asset replacement in case of failures. Additionally, it supports the design principles of service orientation and modularity, enabling agile responses and seamless integration of services and modules. 21-Mar-24 KYC 23  Design Principles of Industry 4.0 Technical assistance and service orientation: The service orientation in manufacturing involves adapting to customer demands for tailored products and value-added services, driven by data and intelligence, and leading to service-based revenue models. Technical assistance, including maintenance, enabled by IoT and data analytics, transforms service offerings. This enhances data comprehension and efficiency while addressing challenges on the shop floor, such as providing interactive procedural guides and physically supporting workers through tasks, exemplified by robots reducing workplace injuries. 21-Mar-24 KYC 24  Design Principles of Industry 4.0 Modularity: Modularity encompasses both individual modules within the smart factory and the overall agility and flexibility it enables. It signifies a shift from rigid systems to adaptable environments that prioritize responsiveness to changing demands from customers, partners, and market conditions. Modules operate locally without hierarchy, allowing for seamless adaptation to diverse needs across the supply chain. Modularity is the essence of production by order. It provides the possibility to change certain parts of a product during production following the desires of the customer. 21-Mar-24 KYC 25  Industry 4.0 technologies Industry 4.0 is built on nine technology pillars. These innovations bridge the physical and digital worlds and make smart and autonomous systems possible. Businesses and supply chains already use some of these advanced technologies, but the full potential of Industry 4.0 comes to life when they’re used together. 21-Mar-24 KYC 26  Industry 4.0 technologies Big Data and AI analytics: In Industry 4.0, Big Data is collected from various origins, spanning factory machinery and Internet of Things (IoT) devices to Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Customer Relationship Management (CRM) systems, alongside weather and traffic applications. Through the application of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, real-time analytics are performed on this data. The resultant insights play a crucial role in enhancing decision-making processes and driving automation across all facets of supply chain management, encompassing supply chain planning, logistics, manufacturing, research and development, engineering, enterprise asset management (EAM), and procurement. 21-Mar-24 KYC 27  Industry 4.0 technologies Horizontal and vertical integration: It serve as the foundational pillars of Industry 4.0. Horizontal integration involves the seamless integration of processes at the operational level, spanning from the production floor to multiple production facilities and throughout the entire supply chain. Conversely, vertical integration focuses on the cohesive linkage of all organizational layers, enabling unrestricted data flow from the shop floor to upper management and vice versa. This integration ensures that production processes are intricately interconnected with various business functions such as research and development, quality assurance, sales and marketing, and other departments. Consequently, the era of data and knowledge silos becomes obsolete as organizations embrace a unified approach to operations and decision-making. 21-Mar-24 KYC 28  Industry 4.0 technologies Cloud computing: It stands as the paramount catalyst for ushering in Industry 4.0 and facilitating digital transformation. Beyond its conventional attributes of speed, scalability, storage capacity, and cost- effectiveness, modern cloud technology serves as the fundamental bedrock for implementing cutting-edge advancements such as artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning, and the Internet of Things (IoT). By leveraging cloud infrastructure, businesses gain the necessary tools to foster innovation and drive forward. Moreover, the data essential for powering Industry 4.0 technologies finds its home in the cloud, while the cyber-physical systems central to Industry 4.0 rely on cloud connectivity for seamless communication and coordination. 21-Mar-24 KYC 29  Industry 4.0 technologies Augmented reality (AR): It serves as a fundamental concept within Industry 4.0, offering the capability to superimpose digital content onto the physical environment. Through AR systems, employees utilize smart glasses or mobile devices to access a wealth of real-time IoT data, digitized components, repair or assembly instructions, training materials, and additional information directly overlaid onto physical objects, such as equipment or products. While still in its nascent stages, AR holds significant implications across various domains including maintenance, service, quality assurance, technician training, and safety protocols within industrial settings. 21-Mar-24 KYC 30  Industry 4.0 technologies Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT): The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is intricately intertwined with Industry 4.0, to the extent that these terms are frequently used interchangeably. In the context of Industry 4.0, nearly all physical entities, including devices, robots, machinery, equipment, and products, are equipped with sensors and RFID tags, enabling them to furnish real-time data regarding their status, performance, or whereabouts. This technological integration empowers companies to streamline supply chain operations, expedite product design iterations, pre-empt equipment failures, remain attuned to consumer preferences, monitor product movements and inventory levels, and undertake a myriad of other functions aimed at enhancing operational efficiency and responsiveness. 21-Mar-24 KYC 31  Industry 4.0 technologies Additive manufacturing/3D printing: Additive manufacturing, also known as 3D printing, stands as a pivotal technology fuelling the advancement of Industry 4.0. Initially utilized primarily for rapid prototyping purposes, 3D printing has evolved to encompass a diverse array of applications, extending from mass customization to decentralized manufacturing practices. Through 3D printing, components and products can be stored digitally as design files within virtual inventories, allowing for on-demand fabrication precisely where and when needed. This approach not only mitigates transportation distances but also slashes associated costs, heralding a transformative shift in manufacturing paradigms. 21-Mar-24 KYC 32  Industry 4.0 technologies Autonomous Robots: Industry 4.0 heralds the rise of a new breed of autonomous robots, designed to execute tasks with minimal human oversight. Spanning a wide spectrum in terms of size and functionality, these autonomous robots encompass inventory-scanning drones and autonomous mobile robots adept at pick-and-place operations. Leveraging sophisticated software, artificial intelligence (AI), sensors, and machine vision, these robots possess the capability to undertake intricate and sensitive tasks. Moreover, they demonstrate the ability to perceive, interpret, and respond to information gleaned from their environment, thereby enabling enhanced operational efficiency and flexibility within industrial settings. 21-Mar-24 KYC 33  Industry 4.0 technologies Simulation/digital twins: Simulation and digital twins represent integral facets of Industry 4.0, facilitating virtual representations of real-world machines, products, processes, or systems derived from IoT sensor data. These digital twins empower businesses to gain deeper insights into, analyze, and enhance the performance and maintenance of their industrial assets. For instance, an asset operator can utilize a digital twin to pinpoint a malfunctioning component, forecast potential issues, and optimize uptime through predictive maintenance strategies. By bridging the physical and digital realms, digital twins revolutionize operational efficiency and decision-making within industrial contexts. 21-Mar-24 KYC 34  Industry 4.0 technologies Cybersecurity: In the era of Industry 4.0, where heightened connectivity and Big Data utilization prevail, robust cybersecurity measures are essential. Adopting a Zero Trust architecture and leveraging advanced technologies such as machine learning and blockchain enables companies to automate threat detection, prevention, and response mechanisms. By doing so, they can significantly mitigate the risk of data breaches and production disruptions across their networks, safeguarding sensitive information and ensuring uninterrupted operations. 21-Mar-24 KYC 35  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 21-Mar-24 KYC 36  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Transitioning to Industry 4.0 can be challenging for manufacturing organizations due to complex legacy systems vital for daily operations. However, companies can upgrade gradually to reap Industry 4.0 benefits. Our Digital Manufacturing series explores techniques for swift solutions to real-world challenges. Manufacturing generates vast amounts of data, including materials, assembly instructions, machinery information, and customer specifications. However, research indicates that only a third of this data is utilized due to obstacles like siloed data and inefficient management practices, representing a missed opportunity. Digital applications like dashboards, analytics, AI, AR, VR, and computer vision have the potential to enhance efficiency, reduce costs, and mitigate risks. Leveraging these technologies could lead to performance improvements of up to 20%. 21-Mar-24 KYC 37  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Embrace Robotic Process Automation (RPA) for efficiency and improved data insights: In shop floor settings, data gathering for compliance and business intelligence is hindered by disparate legacy systems, relying on manual labor and causing time-consuming processes. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) resolves this by efficiently automating tasks, analyzing large data volumes error-free. RPA deployment is swift and cost-effective, seamlessly integrating with existing systems, yielding measurable results within months. Applied in various industrial processes, RPA enhances operations from back- office tasks to core manufacturing. Combined with AI and advanced analytics, RPA provides insights and predictive capabilities for superior decision-making. 21-Mar-24 KYC 38  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Break down the data silos In legacy-heavy manufacturing and industrial settings, professionals spend significant time navigating disjointed databases. Modern digital tools dissolve these silos, streamlining data collection and analysis. Data virtualization, or "digital decoupling," enables real-time access and manipulation of diverse data sources without replication, enhancing integration with minimal infrastructure. This approach boosts security, governance, flexibility, scalability, and deployment speed. Pairing enhanced data governance with business process integration strategies is crucial for optimal results. 21-Mar-24 KYC 39  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Adopt hybrid cloud to enable agile innovation Cloud-based computing is crucial for Industry 4.0 and 5.0 technologies, yet some manufacturing leaders hesitate to migrate critical data to third-party providers due to security and latency concerns. A common solution is a hybrid approach, blending on-premise, private, and public cloud services with orchestration for agility and flexibility. This strategy expedites deployment across multiple sites or countries and aids modernization efforts. For instance, public cloud resources can trial new applications, ensuring only proven technologies are incorporated. Cloud systems also offer faster upgrades, enhanced security, and stability compared to on-premises infrastructure. 21-Mar-24 KYC 40  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Better data acquisition to enhance shop floor & supply chain visibility Improving data management on the shop floor is crucial as manual methods like spreadsheets are error-prone and time-consuming. Adopting IoT sensor solutions integrated into existing PLC and SCADA systems enables real-time data acquisition, enhancing visibility and processing of shop floor events. Harmonization tools unify disparate data fields, formats, and dimensions, reducing time and cost for accurate insights. Visualization tools provide insight generation and integrate data points into downstream processes, with digital dashboards displaying key metrics for efficient collaboration across the organization. 21-Mar-24 KYC 41  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Design the right architecture to maximise the power of IoT IoT sensors in manufacturing infrastructure enable gathering of previously inaccessible data like temperature, vibration, and CO2 levels. Manufacturers use these sensors to detect and promptly alert managers of safety and quality issues, reducing damage and waste and improving asset reliability. Real-time data access helps prevent incidents like toxic leaks, crucial in industries such as chemicals or oil and gas. IoT devices also enhance inventory and distribution management by monitoring products in transit. However, integrating Industrial IoT (IIoT) applications with existing technology poses challenges for many companies, often due to inadequate reference architecture design principles. Leverage AI to produce forward-looking intelligence 21-Mar-24 KYC 42  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Leverage AI to produce forward-looking intelligence Machine learning (ML) and AI technologies unlock insights from data across shop floors and supply chains. ML enables machines to learn from data without explicit programming, while AI encompasses broader cognitive capabilities. In manufacturing, ML finds powerful applications in predictive process control, optimizing operations and minimizing machine failures and downtime. Predictive maintenance software, driven by ML algorithms, monitors machine performance to predict faults, reducing downtime and maintenance costs by 10% to 20%. Enhanced Vision Systems, incorporating AI and ML, automate and enhance accuracy in quality control and inspection tasks. These systems perform visual tasks like part selection and defect detection faster and more accurately than humans, improving efficiency and reducing downstream costs. 21-Mar-24 KYC 43  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Product Configurations and Production Line Digital Twins enable manufacturers to virtually test new or updated production configurations, minimizing the risk of costly oversights and reducing the need for lengthy trial and error processes. By simulating various scenarios, teams can quickly identify potential problems and bottlenecks in the system, saving time and money, especially in complex manufacturing environments. Integrated with IoT platforms and CAD, 3D emulation software allows for efficient simulation of production line setups, optimizing flow and facilitating easier installation. Furthermore, Digital Twin technology can simulate hazardous scenarios to identify safety risks, enhancing safety measures and mitigating the risk of accidents. 21-Mar-24 KYC 44  ROAD TO INDUSTRY 4.0 Predictive Notification for Maintenance Manufacturers gather diverse machine condition data, like vibration and temperature, often in varied formats. Digital Twin solutions unify this data, automating maintenance planning based on machine condition. When coupled with machine learning (ML), Digital Twins predict potential failures, enabling proactive issue prevention. In the steel industry, thermal imaging predicts refractory brick lining deterioration using computer vision technology, facilitating automated maintenance scheduling. Digital Twins analyze patterns to predict future failures, optimize supply chain processes, and enhance quality control. These predictive capabilities reduce downtime, increase system availability, and enable proactive maintenance by identifying anomalies in real-time. 21-Mar-24 KYC 45  Today’s automotive industry (without IR 4.0) 21-Mar-24 KYC 46  Today’s automotive industry (without IR 4.0) Today’s automotive industry is characterized by static production lines (with predefined sequences) which are hard to reconfigure to make new product variants. Software-supported Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES) are normally designed with narrowly defined functionality based on the production line’s hardware and are therefore equally static. Individuality is not encouraged. As a result, it is not possible to incorporate individual customer requests to include an element from another product group made by the same company, for example to fit a Volkswagen with Porsche seats. 21-Mar-24 KYC 47  Tomorrow’s automotive industry (with IR4.0) 21-Mar-24 KYC 48  Tomorrow’s automotive industry (with IR4.0) Industry 4.0 results in the emergence of dynamic production lines. Vehicles become smart products that move autonomously through the assembly shop from one CPS-enabled processing module to another. The dynamic reconfiguration of production lines makes it possible to mix and match the equipment with which vehicles are fitted; furthermore, individual variations (e.g. fitting a seat from another vehicle series) can be implemented at any time in response to logistics issues (such as bottlenecks) without being constrained by centrally prescribed timings. It is simple to execute this type of reconfiguration and the cars move autonomously to the relevant workstation. 21-Mar-24 KYC 49  Today’s and Future Factory Comparison 21-Mar-24 KYC 50